Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
INTRODUCTION
Structural components subjected only to tension or compression
longitudinal axes are the most common type, although cables and
coil springs also carry axial loads. Examples of axially loaded bars
k = 1/f
Prismatic Bar: A The elongation of a prismatic bar
structural member having a subjected to a tensile load P as shown in
straight longitudinal axis and
Fig., the uniform normal stress at cross
constant cross section
throughout its length. sections away from the ends is given by the
formula = P/A, where A is the cross-
sectional area. Furthermore, if the bar is
made of a homogeneous material, the axial
strain is = /L, where is the elongation
and L is the length of the bar. Let us assume
that the material is linearly elastic, then
as per Hookes law longitudinal stress and
strain are related by the equation = E.,
Combining these basic relationships, we get the following equation
for the elongation of the bar:, The product EA is known as the
axial rigidity of the bar. Thus, the stiffness and flexibility of a
prismatic bar are, respectively,
k
Cables
Cables are used to transmit large tensile forces, for
example, when lifting and pulling heavy objects, raising
elevators, guying towers, and supporting suspension
bridges. Unlike springs and prismatic bars, cables cannot
resist compression. Furthermore, they have little resistance
to bending and therefore may be curved as well as straight.
Nevertheless, a cable is considered to be an axially loaded
member because it is subjected only to tensile forces.
Because the tensile forces in a cable are directed along the
axis, the forces may vary in both direction and magnitude,
depending upon the configuration of the cable.
Cables are constructed from a large number of wires wound in some
particular manner. While many arrangements are available depending upon
how the cable will be used, a common type of cable, shown in Fig., is formed
by six strands wound helically around a central strand. Each strand is in turn
constructed of many wires, also wound helically.
For this reason, cables are often referred to as wire rope. The cross-
sectional area of a cable is equal to the total cross sectional area of the
individual wires, called the effective area or metallic area. This area is
less than the area of a circle having the same diameter as the cable because
there are spaces between the individual wires.
Under the same tensile load, the elongation of a cable is greater than
the elongation of a solid bar of the same material and same metallic
cross-sectional area, because the wires in a cable tighten up in the
same manner as the fibers in a rope. Thus, the modulus of elasticity
(called the effective modulus) of a cable is less than the modulus of
the material of which it is made. The effective modulus of steel cables
is about 140 GPa, whereas the steel itself has a modulus of about 210
GPa. When determining the elongation of a cable, the effective
modulus should be used for E and the effective area should be used
for A.
CHANGES IN LENGTHS UNDER NONUNIFORM
CONDITIONS
Bars with Intermediate Axial Loads
Bars Consisting of Prismatic Segments
Bars with Continuously Varying Loads or
Dimensions
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
The springs, bars and cables have one important feature in
common, their reactions and internal forces can be determined
solely from free-body diagrams and equations of equilibrium.
Structures of this type are classified as statically
determinate. The forces in a statically determinate structure
can be found without knowing the properties of the materials.
There are now two vertical reactions (RA and RB) but only one
useful equation of equilibrium - the equation for summing forces in
the vertical direction. Since this equation contains two unknowns,
it is not sufficient for finding the reactions. Structures of this kind
are classified as statically indeterminate.
Prestressing a structure requires that one or more parts of the structure be stretched
or compressed from their theoretical lengths. A simple way to produce a change in
length is to tighten a bolt or a turnbuckle. In the case of a bolt each turn of the nut
will cause the nut to travel along the bolt a distance equal to the spacing p of the
threads (called the pitch of the threads). Thus, the distance traveled by the nut is
= np
Turnbuckles are often inserted in cables and then tightened, thus creating
initial tension in the cables.
STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS
a normal force N that is perpendicular to the inclined plane pq and a
shear force V that is tangential to it. These force components are N
= P cos and V = P sin
Strain Energy
Strain energy is widely used for determining the
response of machines and structures to both static and
dynamic loads.
useful tool, such as the one plotted is shown in figure. On this diagram the vertical axis
represents the axial load and the horizontal axis represents the corresponding elongation
of the bar. The shape of the curve depends upon the properties of the material.
Let us denote by P1 any value of the load between zero
In geometric terms, the work done by the load is equal to the area below the
load-displacement curve. When the load stretches the bar, strains are
produced. The presence of these strains increases the energy level of the bar
itself. Therefore, a new quantity, called strain energy, is defined as the
energy absorbed by the bar during the loading process. From the principle of
conservation of energy, this strain energy is equal to the work done by the
load provided no energy is added or subtracted in the form of heat. Therefore
If the force P is slowly removed from the bar, the bar will shorten. If
the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded, the bar will return to
its original length. If the limit is exceeded, a permanent set will remain
left. Thus, either all or part of the strain energy will be recovered in the
form of work. This behavior is shown on the load-displacement
diagram of Fig. During loading, the work done by the load is equal to
the area below the curve (area OABCDO). When the load is removed,
the load-displacement diagram follows line BD if point B is beyond the
elastic limit, and a permanent elongation OD remains. Thus, the strain
energy recovered during unloading, called the elastic strain energy, is
represented by the shaded triangle BCD. Area OABDO represents
energy that is lost in the process of permanently deforming the bar.
This energy is known as the inelastic strain energy.
Linearly Elastic Behavior: Let us now assume that the