Paragraph

What is a paragraph?
 Definition
Paragraph is a group of sentences that
develops one main idea
Or: a paragraph is a group of sentences
which develops a topic. A topic is the
subject of paragraph.
 Kinds of paragraph
1. Narrative Paragraph
2. Descriptive Paragraph
3. Expository Paragraph
4. Persuasive Paragraph
5. Process Paragraph
6. Comparison/ Contrast Paragraph
7. Definition Paragraph
 Parts of paragraph
A paragraph contains three major parts.
Topic sentence

Supporting sentence

Concluding sentence/closing sentence

 The topic sentence
A topic sentence of a paragraph is a very
important sentence which introduces the topic of
the paragraph.
This topic sentence has two parts:
1. topic: names the subject of a paragraph.
2. controlling idea: it says what the paragraph
will say about the topic.
This is called the controlling idea because it
controls and limits the topic to a very specific
point.
 Look at the topic
The weddings in Afghanistan are special
because of the mix culture.
In this topic sentence the topic is the
wedding in Afghanistan, and the
controlling idea is are special because of
the mix culture.
Look at the more topic sentences with the
same topic but different controlling ideas:
 Some weddings are a union of two families.
topic c. idea
Some weddings are a union of two individuals.
topic c. idea
Some weddings are very simple.
topic c. idea
 Position of a topic sentence!
The topic sentence is usually the first
sentence in a paragraph. Experienced
writers put this sentence at the end, but
the best place for this is at the beginning.
At the beginning, it gives the readers an
idea of what they will read. This helps
them understand the paragraph more
easily.
 A topic sentence is neither too
general not too specific!
Marriage is an event in persons life.
This is too general because there is no specific controlling idea. The
readers has no idea what the paragraph will say about the marriage.
The average age for people in the united states to marry in the year
2000 was 25 for a woman and 27 for a man.
It is much too specific. It gives the details that should come later In
the paragraph.
The correct one is the following:
The average age for the people in the united states to marry has
changed in the past 100 years.
This is a good topic sentence because it gives the readers a hint
that the paragraph will discuss changes in ages when they marry.
Note: a good topic sentence tells something about the contents of
the paragraph but none of the details.
 Developing topic sentence
Imagine you are given the topic to write a
paragraph about friends. Friends is too large a
topic for a paragraph, so you need to narrow it to
a smaller topic. One way to do this is to use the
listing technique.
friends
kinds of friends friends from school
new friends casual friends
old friends how to make friends
best friends what is a friend
childhood friends
 Continues
Right now choose one of the smaller topics and write the second list
while thinking about this smaller topic. You may choose What is a
friend?
What is a friend?
have fun with is loyal
play sports with can depend on
Share secrets ask advice help
each other
Share problems
Any of these ideas can be the controlling idea in your topic
sentence.
A friend is a person you have fun with.
A friend is someone you can trust.
A friend is a person you can share secrets.
 The supporting sentences
The supporting sentences are sentences which back
up, clarify, explain or prove the point you make in your
topic sentence.
Have a look at the following topic:
Topic sentence: Smoking cigarettes can be an
expensive habit.
Supporting sentences:
1. cigarettes cost about seventy-five cents.
2. the average smoker smokes two packs a day.
3. the annual expense for this smoker is $400.
4.The smoker must also pay for extra cleaning of
carpets, furniture, and clothes.
 Concluding/closing sentence
A concluding or closing sentence is a sentence
which ends the paragraph, and reminds the
readers the main idea. (topic sentence)
See the concluding sentence for cigarettes.
In conclusion, smoking is very dangerous which
brings harm to you, your family and the whole
society.
Note: not all the paragraphs need concluding
sentence. The paragraph that stands alone
needs concluding sentence. A paragraph which
is the part of longer writing, does not need
concluding sentence
 Transitions
In order to join and connect the sentences (topic,
supporting, and concluding) together, we have to have a
look at the transitions or connectors (discourse
markers).
Transitions are words or group of words which are used
to connect sentences in paragraph.
Transition can be used at the beginning, in the middle,
and at the end.
Ali did not study. Therefore, he failed the test.
Ali did not study. He, therefore, failed the test.
Ali did not study. He failed the test, therefore.
Note: this rule of position is not for all transitions.
Transitions for Narration (story telling)

After Before Later Then

Afterwards During Meanwhile Until

As Finally Next When

At the same time First Now While

 Transitions for description
Above Across Also Before Below Beyond
from
Further Here In the Nearby Next to Over
distance
On my left Opposite In front of Inside Beside Around
(right) to
Among Between past Under To the left To the
of right of
Transitions for adding ideas already
stated
Again Also Another At the same
time

Besides Such For example For instance

Furthermore In addition Likewise Moreover

One example of Another Similarly Such as

example of
Transitions for result (cause and effect)
Accordingly As a result At last

Because Consequently Hence

Therefore Thus To sum up

At this point Since

Transitions for contrasting ideas
Although However Otherwise

On the one hand On the other hand yet

while whereas Different (ly)

Nevertheless But Still

 Transitions to contrast items
Although As opposed to But Conversely

Counter to Even so Even though However

In spit of In the meantime Nevertheless On the contrary

 Transitions to compare items

Accordingly In the same way Like

Also In the same manner Likewise

As In conjunction with this Similarly

Comparable to Just as Not onlybut also

Bothand
 Transitions to emphasize a point
Again For this reason Indeed

Most compelling On the negative side To emphasize

evidence

Truly Another key point In fact

On the positive side Surprising To point out

Important to realize Must be remembered Surprisingly enough

To repeat
 Transitions for location
Above Alongside Away from Beneath
By In the middle of Throughout Up

Across Amid Beside Down

Inside On top To the left Against
Among Behind Between In front of
Into Outside To the right Into
Along Beyond In the center of Near

Over Under
 Transitions for time
About afterward After As soon as

Finally During before At the same

time
First Immediately In the meantime Later

Last Meanwhile Next Next week

Next time Next year Prior to Second next

Soon Then Third Till

Today Tomorrow Until When

Yesterday
 Transitions to clarify
For example For instance In other words Put another way

Seems clear Simply stated To clarify To illustrate the

from this point
Transitions to conclude or summarize

Accordingly All in all As a result

Consequently Finally In closing

In conclusion In short In summary

In the last analysis Lastly Logical conclusion is

It is clear that These examples You can see that

show
To conclude In brief To sum up
 Unity
Unity is the relationship of sentences in a paragraph.
Each sentence in our paragraph must relate to the topic
and develop the controlling idea. This is called the unity
of a paragraph.
A paragraph that contains the sentence which is not
relevant to the topic, lacks unity.
 Coherence
Coherence is the logical arrangement and
smooth flow of your paragraph.
Logical arrangement is the order of your
sentences and ideas in a paragraph.
Smooth flow refers to how well one idea or
sentence leads into another. A smooth
flow can be achieved through sentence
combining and transitions using which
provide links between ideas.
 Logical arrangement
There are several ways to have logical arrangement of
your paragraph.

A. impression B. importance C. spatial (location) D.

Chronological (time)

1. impression: in this order, we mention the least exciting

points first and the most exciting points last in order to
create suspense. This will keep your readers well attentive.
See the example:
 Example for impression
Witness:

I reached the house.
The opened window puzzled me.
The splintered frame of window told me the window had
been open. Peering into the house, I saw papers scattered
around the study, and I realized a burglary had been
committed.
 Importance
In this order we arrange the paragraph according to the importance and significance.
See the example:

Police:
Approximately $2000 worth jewelry, silver, electronics, and
paintings were stolen from the house. The thief apparently
entered the dwelling through a window in the back of the
building. No permanent damage was done to the house or its
furniture
 Spatial
In spatial order the arrangement of the paragraph is
according to place or location.
Detective:
Downstairs, antique silver and a small painting were
taken from the dinning room. A camera and stereo
were taken from the study in the back of the house.
Upstairs in the bedroom, a diamond necklace and a
pair of pearl earring were missing.
 Chronological
In this order we arrange the paragraph in timely
order. (time and date wise used for narrations)

I wake up early in the morning. You know at

4:00, I perform the prayers. After this, at 5:30, I
come to the class for teaching English. Later, I
enjoy taking tea. That is my daily routine of life.
 Writing Process
We have four steps to put the writing in
process and they are the following:
Step 1 Prewriting
Step 2 Organizing
Step 3 Writing
Step 4 Polishing: Revising and Editing
 Writing Process
Step 1: Prewriting
The first step is called Prewriting. Prewriting is a
way to get ideas. In this step you choose a topic
and collect ideas to explain the topic.
For getting ideas, we have the Listing technique.
listing technique is a prewriting technique in
which we write the topic on the top of a piece of
paper and write the words and phrases that
come to our mind. See the example bellow
 Writing Process
Example for Prewriting
A person who has made a difference:
My Grandfather
Uneducated farmer
Worked hard helped community
Make a hospital went to church every day
Got up early was the first person to buy a car
smart Improved the farming techniques
Read new things listened to experts
Thought things over brought me things
Told me stories advised me
 Prewriting
Right now pick on of the small topics. For
example, improved farming techniques in his
area. Make another list , and write a bout that
topic. This was step first.
 Writing Process
Step 2: Organizing
In this we organize the ideas into a simple
outline. (Making another list which gives more
information.) see the example
A person who has made a difference:
My grandfather helped community in two ways.
1. He improved farming techniques in his area.
A. first farmer to terrace the land.
B. terracing helps prevent soil erosion.
2. Made a community hospital.
A. only a hospital in a big area
 Prewriting
Step 3: writing
In this step we write only the rough draft.
Write a rough draft without thinking about
your grammar, spelling, pronunciation etc.
See the following example for rough draft:
 A person who has made a difference: My Grandfather
My Grandfather help his community in two ways. My Grandfather
born in 1880. he was farmer. Not well educated (maybe went to
school for one or two years on those days children were needed to
work on farms.) he was first farmer to terrace the field. People
thought he was crazy. Now every one does it. Terracing helps
prevent soil erosion. This improved the farming techniques in the
area. After he got old, he got an idea that his area needs hospital.
He started raising money to build a hospital. There is no hospital
nearby, and people have to go a long distance to see the doctor.
People again think he was crazy, but he succeeded. Now there is a
small hospital in the area. There are three doctors and many
patients come every day. The hospital is named Jaimes community
hospital. It was named for my grandfather. My Grandfather just a
simple, uneducated farmer, but he helped his community a lot.
Dont like slang word unimportant
 Writing Process
Step 4: Polishing, Revising, and Editing
Revising: contains the bigger issues like
organizing the contents.
Editing: contains smaller issues like
grammar, spelling, good words, bad
words, and pronunciation.
Editing by your classmate or friend. After
by your teacher.
 A person who has made a difference: My Grandfather
My Grandfather help his community in two ways. My Grandfather
born in 1880. he was farmer. Not well educated (maybe went to
school for one or two years on those days children were needed
to work on farms.) he was first farmer to terrace the field. People
thought he was crazy. Now every one does it. Terracing helps
prevent soil erosion. This improved the farming techniques in t
area. After he got old, he got an idea that his area needs hospital.
He started raising money to build a hospital. There is no hospital
nearby, and people have to go a long distance to see the doctor.
People again think he was crazy, but he succeeded. Now there is
a small hospital in the area. There are three doctors and many
patients come every day. The hospital is named Jaimes
community hospital. It was named for my grandfather. My
Grandfather just a simple, uneducated farmer, but he helped his
community a lot.
Dont like slang word unimportant
 Narrative Paragraph
Narrative writing is a writing in which we
tell story and narrate events according to
chronological order. (time wise)
When you are writing a story, you are
answering the question What happened?
 Planning your Narrative
For writing the Narrative or story three
major elements to be taken in account.
Plot, Characters, Setting
1. Plot: the set of connected events on
which a story, play, film, etc., is based.
In short, what happens in a Narrative is
called Plot.
 2. Characters: the people or the
animals that take part in the event
or narrative are called the
characters.
3. Setting: the setting puts the
characters in a particular place
and particular time. It means that
the events (plot) and characters
are well organized through
setting.
 Creating idea for narrative writing
(story)
When you want to write a narrative
paragraph you have to ask yourself the
following questions:
1. What is the problem?
2. What characters are involved?
3. What happened before?
4. What will happen next?
5. What is the solution to the problem?
 Write Dialogue
The words spoken by the characters in a
narrative. This is very important to write
the dialogues of characters because it will
help you show the mood, interest, and
personality of different characters.
Example:
What characters say, what they are like,
etc.
 Starting your story!
To start your story, you have to focus on one of
the three elements plot, characters, and setting.
Choose the element that is the most important.
Keep your story on track. It means, give
important information about your narrative.
Arrange your story in chronological order. (time
order)
Conclude your story with concluding words and
expressions.
 Narrative Model
An unforgettable experience in my life was a 6.9 magnitude
earthquake . I was at home with my older sister and younger
brother. Suddenly, our apartment started shaking. At first, none
of us realized what was happening. Then my brother yelled,
earthquake! Get under something! I rolled and crawled
across the room to get under the dinning table. My sister also
yelled at my little brother to get under the table. Meanwhile, my
older brother was on the kitchen floor holding his arms over
his head to protect it from falling dishes. The earthquake lasted
less than a minute, but it seemed like a year to us. At last, the
shaking stopped. For a minute or two, we were too scared to
move. Then we tried to call our parents at work, but our cell
phones did not work. Next, we checked the apartment for
damage. We were very lucky, for nothing was broken except a
few dishes . However, our first earthquake was an experience
that none of us will ever forget.
 Descriptive paragraph!
Descriptive paragraph appeals to the senses, so it tells
how something looks, feels, smells, tastes, and sounds.
A good descriptive writing creates a word picture in
readers minds.
Remember in a descriptive writing we use on of the
following orders:
1. Impression 2. Importance 3. spatial
See the analysis above!
 Example
The campus of Kardan university is a tranquil area. I
have seen many places in my life, but the campus of
Kardan is really charming. Coming from the front, you
will see the main gate made of metal in which many
colors create a center of attention towards the
building. Upon the entrance through the gateway, your
eyes will gaze at the spectacular lawn located to the
left of the door. you will be drown in the different
varieties of flowers, so be careful not to stumble on
the steps towards the office where the director sits. In
the front part across from the main office, the office of
receptionists is really stunning because the blue
curtains obligates you to have a look at. On the left,
just a few steps a way, there is lecturers room the
stillness of which besieges for staying to the visitors.
Dont worry! The area is such enormous. Move
upstairs through the stairs fenced by the barrier made
of wood. The story is very long, but if you really want a
place to get relaxed in, the campus of Kardan is for
you.
 Descriptive
Mary is the ugliest girl in our village. She
has gray curly short hair coiled towards
the center of the skull. Along cucumber
shape face is full of pimples and acnes
which introduce the ugliness of Mary. She
has a dark brown flat eyebrows over her
small round eyes. Her nose is really
fascinating because it is puffy flat and too
short which has the nostrils just like barn.
If you look at the chin, it is just like a sock
full of sand. Mouth! I am afraid. The long
stained teeth and along tongue adds to
the repulsiveness of Mary. Mary is very
famous for her ugliness in our village.
 Expository Paragraph
Expository paragraph: a paragraph that
explains, exposes, and analyses the topic
is called expository paragraph.
Expository comes from expose which
means reveal.
 Analyses!
For instance, you were asked to develop the topic
sentence, Owning a car can be expensive.
In this topic sentence, the controlling idea is expensive.
What kind of support are you going to use for this topic
sentence?
Does this topic sentence suggest you tell a story or
describe something?
And the answer is NO because the topic sentence tells
you to support the controlling idea of this topic sentence.
How to support?
Support the controlling idea with information, explanation,
facts, and illustrations.
 Support!
To support the controlling idea expensive is as
follows
Cost of purchase
Cost of fuel
Cost of maintenance
Cost of repair
Traffic problems
 Example for Expository

Owning a car can be expensive. A car

costs a lot of money these days. In
addition to the price, you have to pay
for the fuel costs, which costs a lot of
money nowadays. Later, once you pay
for the fuel, not to forget about outlay
of maintenance because the area is
full of thieves. As you better know, one
of my friends car was stolen recently.
Leave it! The expenditure of repair
kills the owner and the traffic problems
take off the clothes. All these take a
chunk of your salary!
 Persuasive Paragraph!
Persuasive paragraph: writing in which
you want to persuade the readers,
listeners, or viewers feel and take action
about certain ideas or issues.
Persuasive is also called argument
paragraph.
In persuasive writing we try to use the
facts and strong reasons to support the
details and make the readers agree.
 Facts!
Facts are the statements which can be proved.
For example, fire is burner.
Give reasons to convince because without
reasons nobody is ready to accept what you are
trying to say and try to give strong reasons in
order to convince your readers to the point and
idea you have about the problem.
Opinion: is the personal feeling which cant be
proved, so you have to search for strong
opinions. For instance, the opinions of experts
and your own experience can be very good
evidence. Collect the opinions and make a list.
 Take in account the readers!
When you are writing persuasively you have to
understand your readers in following terms:
Who is your reader?
How much does your reader know about the
topic?
Does your reader have the concerns about the
topic?
What facts, reasons, and opinions can be
convincing for the readers?
 Organize your evidence
Once you collect the evidence then you have to make
the logical order for your evidence. Which point can be
convincing where? At the first or at the end?
The structure of persuasive is as follows
The topic sentence states the topic and your opinion
about that.
The body of the paragraph provides evidence to support
your opinion.
The concluding part summarizes your argument and
suggests action.
 Example
In the following topic, smoking cigarettes can be an expensive habit,
you want to make your readers agree to accept your opinion about
the topic, so you have to give the convincing reasons.

Topic sentence: Smoking cigarettes can be an expensive habit.

Supporting sentences:
1. cigarettes cost about seventy-five cents.
2. the average smoker smokes two packs a day.
3. the annual expense for this smoker is $400.
4.The smoker must also pay for extra cleaning of carpets, furniture,
and clothes.
 Smoking cigarettes can be an expensive habit. Man is
really stingy when spending money, but does not think of
any extravagance in some cases. One of the
extravagance is smoking cigarettes. you have to pay
around seventy five cents a day because the average
smoker smokes two packs a day for which the annual
expense is estimated around $400. On the other hand,
smoking causes other harms. For instance, when you
are smoking, the embers of ashes fall on your clothes,
carpet, mattress, and others which cost more than on
smoking. Consequently, smoking costs a lot of money
about which you have to think.
 Another example
Topic sentence: Smoking cigarettes is hazardous to your
health.
Supporting sentences:
Cigarettes causes cancer.
Cigarettes causes discomfort with asthma and
emphysema.
Smokers can easily catch cold and flu.
Concluding sentence:
Smoking is the major killer of humanity.
 Smoking cigarettes is hazardous to your health. Several years ago,
a United States government study was released that linked the
intake of tar and nicotine, found in cigarettes, with the development
of cancer in laboratory animals. The evidence was so overwhelming
that the United States government required cigarettes
manufacturers to put a warning on the outside of each package of
cigarettes. Aside from the most dreaded disease, cancer, cigarette
smoking also can aggravate other health problems. For example,
smoking can increase the discomfort for people with asthma and
emphysema. It can give a smoker cough and contribute to
bronchitis. Finally, recent studies have shown that cigarette smokers
are susceptible to common colds and flu. To sum up, smoking is one
of the leading killers in the world.
 Process Paragraph!
In a Process Paragraph, you explain how to make, do, or
understand something, so a process paragraph is also
called How to Paragraph.
If you want to explain How to do or make something
clearly, break the process down into a series of steps
and explain each step.
In a process paragraph, we use chronological order. See
the following examples for time signals:
 Time signals!
First, (second, etc.)
Then (no comma)
Now (no comma)
Next,
Finally,
After that,
Meanwhile,
The first step (no comma)
The next step (co comma)
The final step (no comma)
After five minutes,
 A Traditional Hindu Wedding.
A traditional Hindu wedding lasts all day and night. On the day of the
ceremony, one of the grooms brothers goes to the brides house
with gifts, these gifts seal the union of the two families. Then the
groom arrives at the house of bride with his family and friends.
Dressed in rich clothing and wearing a special headdress. He
usually arrives in a white car or on a white horse, but he sometimes
rides a white elephant. Then the wedding ceremony takes place.
During the ceremony, the couple sits around a sacred fire under a
special canopy. A Hindu priest performs the ceremony by chanting
special wedding prayers. After that, the brides dress is tied to the
grooms scarf, and they walk around the fire seven times. The
groom makes seven promises. To make his wife happy, to share
feelings, to share possessions, to be faithful, to respect her family,
and to make her a part of his life. The seventh is to keep the
promises made. Later, the party begins. Musicians provide
entertainment then the feast is served. All the participants dance,
play games, and sing the songs. In the world there are many
traditions, but Indian tradition is really tiring.
 How to make scrambled eggs?
Scrambled eggs are a quick a and easy
light meal. You need two fresh eggs,
milk butter, salt, and pepper. You also
need a mixing bowl, a tablespoon, a
fork, and a frying pan. First, break the
eggs into the bowl. Then add about
tablespoons of milk, salt, and peppers.
Knead the mixture with a fork until it is
well mixed. Next, melt a small piece of
butter in the frying pan over low heat.
Pour the egg mixture into the pan and let
it heat. Then turn up the heat slightly. As
the eggs cook, push them around gently
with the fork. When the scrambled eggs
are done, they should be fluffy. In just a
few minutes, you can sit down and enjoy
your delicious meal.
 Comparison/contrast paragraph!

In a comparison/contrast paragraph we show the

similarities or differences between things, persons, and
ideas.
In comparison, we tell what is similar about them.
In contrast, we tell what is different about them.
We usually put emphasis on difference.
See the signals for comparison and contrast in lists
above.
 The left and right sides of your brain process information in
different ways. The left side is logical, rational, linear, and
verbal. The right hand, on the other hand, process information
intuitively, emotionally, creatively, and visually. Left brain thinks
in words, whereas right brain thinks in picture. People who
depend more on the left side of their brain are list makers and
analysts. The are detailed, careful, and organized. In contrast,
tight brained people are visual, intuitive, and sensual. When a
left brained person has to make an important decision, he or
she makes a mental list of all the factors involved and arrives at
a decision only after careful analysis. When a right brained
person has to make the same decision, on the other hand, he
or she is more likely to base it on intuition and feelings. For
example, a left brained automobile shopper will consider a cars
cost, fuel efficiency, and resale value, whereas a right brained
shopper bases a decision on how shiny the color is, how soft
the seats are, and how smoothly the car drives. Of course, no
one is 100 percent right brained or 100 percent left brained.
Although one side may be stronger, both sides normally work
together.
 Definition Paragraph!
Is a paragraph that defines or explains
something.
For example, you were asked to define the
word COURAGE.
See the example for this paragraph.
 Courage is the quality of being brave when you are facing
something that is dangerous or that you fear. For example, a
soldier who goes into battle shows courage. A paramedic who
crawls into a collapsed building to help an injured person also
sows courage. However, you dont have to be a soldier or a
paramedic to be courageous. You can display courage in
everyday situations, too. For instance, a shy person who is
afraid of speaking in public shows courage when he or she is
gives a speech at school or at work. A teenager who resists
pressure to smoke, drink, or try drugs shows courage. To give
another example, my friend Carlos, who is terrified of flying,
recently took her first airplane flight. As she walked onto the
plane, she was trembling with fear, but she didnt give any
importance to fright. To me, Carlos entering that airplane was
as brave as a soldier entering battle.