CROSS DRAINAGE

WORKS
 WHAT IS CROOS DRAINAGE
WORK
Irrigational Canals while carrying water have to
cross few natural drainage streams, rivers, etc..
To cross those drainages safely by the canals,
some suitable structures are required to
construct. Works required to construct, to cross
the drainage are called Cross Drainage Works
(CDWs). At the meeting point of canals and
drainages, bed levels may not be same.
Depending on their bed levels, different
structures are constructed and accordingly they
are known by different names.
 NECESSITY OF CDWs
The water-shed canals do not cross natural
drainages. But in actual orientation of the canal
network, this ideal condition may not be available
and the obstacles like natural drainages may be
present across the canal. So, the cross drainage
works must be provided for running the irrigation
system.
At the crossing point, the water of the canal and
the drainage get intermixed. So, far the smooth
running of the canal with its design discharge the
cross drainage works are required.
Cross drainage works are costlier, hence to be
avoided as far as possible.
It can be avoided in two ways
By changing the canal alignment

By mixing two or three steams into one and only

one cross drainage work to be constructed

 TYEPS OF CDWs
(1) Type I (Irrigation canal passes over the drainage)
(a) Aqueduct,
(b) Siphon aqueduct.
(2) Type II (Drainage passes over the irrigation
canal)
(a) Super passage,
(b) Siphon super passage.
(3) Type III (Drainage and canal intersection each
other of the same level)
(a) Level Crossing,
(b) Inlet and outlet.
 Aqueduct
The hydraulic structure in which the irrigation
canal is taken over the drainage (such as river,
stream etc..) is known as aqueduct. This structure
is suitable when bed level of canal is above the
highest flood level of drainage. In this case, the
drainage water passes clearly below the canal.
Siphon Aqueduct
In a hydraulic structure where the canal is
taken over the drainage, but the drainage water
cannot pass clearly below the canal. It flows
under siphonic action. So, it is known as siphon
aqueduct. This structure is suitable when the bed
level of canal is below the highest flood level.
The flooring of drain is depressed downwards by
constructing a vertical drop weir to discharge
high flow drain water through the depressed
concrete floor
Syphon Aqueduct
Type-II Drainage Passes Over the irrigation Canal

Super Passage
The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is
taken over the irrigation canal is known as super
passage. The structure is suitable when the bed
level of drainage is above the full supply level of
the canal. The water of the canal passes clearly
below the drainage.
Super Passage
Canal Syphon
The hydraulic structure in which the drainage is
taken over the irrigation canal, but the canal
water passes below the drainage under siphonic
action is known as canal siphon. This structure is
suitable when the bed level of drainage is below
the full supply level of the canal.
Super passage is more preferred than Canal
Syphon because the sediment deposited in the
canal cant be removed effectively since canal is
under drainage.
Type 3: Drainage admitted into canal

Level Crossings
Drainage water is mixed with canal water
and regulated by provision of regulators
Construction cost is less
Clearance and maintenance are difficult
Level Crossing
Canal Inlets and Outlets

When irrigation canal meets a small stream or

drain at same level, drain is allowed to enter
the canal as in inlet. At some distance from
this inlet point, a part of water is allowed to
drain as outlet which eventually meets the
original stream
Canal Inlets and Outlets
SELECTION OF TYPES OF
CDWs
Relative Bed Level
According to the relative bed levels of the canal and
the river or drainage, the type of cross drainage work
are generally selected which has been discussed
earlier. But some problems may come at the crossing
point
The following points should be remembered

while recommending the type of work,

(a) The crossing should be at right angle to each
other,
(b) Well defined cross-section of the river or drainage
should be available.
(c) At the crossing point the drainage should be
straight for a considerable length.
(d) The width of the drainage should be narrow as far
as possible.
Availability of Suitable Foundation
For the construction of cross drainage works
suitable foundation is required. By boring test, if
suitable foundation is not available, then the type
of cross drainage work should be selected to site
Condition.
Position of water table and availability of
dewatering equipment.
Check the position of water table and then decide
suitable type of CDW
Economic Consideration
The cost of construction of cross drainage works
should be justified with respect to the project cost
and overall benefits of the project. So, the type of
works should be selected considering the
economical point of view.
Discharge of the drainage
Practically the discharge of the drainage is very
uncertain in rainy season. So, the structure should
be carefully selected so that it may not be
destroyed due to unexpected heavy discharge of
the river or drainage.
Construction Problems
Different types of constructional problems may
arise at the site such as sub soil water,
construction materials, communication,
availability of land etc. So the type of works
should be selected according to the site
condition.
DIVERSION HEAD
WORKS
 Location of Diversion Headworks
The location of the diversion headworks depends on the stages of flow in the
river. Most of the large rivers in our country have the following four stages.

1. Rocky stage or Hilly stage (Mountainous stage)

The bed slope and velocities are high
2. Boulder stage
Also called sub-mountainous stage
Bed and banks of the river are composed of boulders and gravels
width of river is small and the river has well-defined boundaries
bed slope and velocity are less than those in the rocky stage
3. Trough or alluvial stage
cross section of river is made up of alluvial sand and silt
The bed slope and velocity are small
4. Delta stage
Before approaching the ocean
Width is very large
The bed slope and velocity are very low
Rocky stage or Mountainous stage

Advantages:
A sound rocky foundation is usually available at the site. Thus cost of

construction of weir is less.

High heads are available for hydroelectric work.

Due to high velocities of flow, there are no chances of the supply

channel getting silted.

Disadvantages:

The discharge in the river is low because of small catchment.

The land in the hilly area is not suitable for agriculture

The ground has a steep slope and therefore a number of canal falls are

required.
The river is usually very flashy and there is sudden rise and fall of the

water level.
The number of cross drainage works on the canals is usually very

large.
Boulder Stage

Advantages:
The length of weir is generally shorter in boulder stage.
Because the banks are high, the cost of river training works is low.
Construction materials such as stone, aggregates, sand, gravel are locally
available.
Since the ground slope is quite steep, the falls on the canals can be utilized
for hydropower generation.
The silt charge is less and the associated problems of excessive silt are small.

Disadvantages:
There is a large loss of stored water due to sub soil flow at the site of
diversion headworks.
Idle length of canal is more.
More cross drainage works are required.
In the head reaches of canal, seepage losses are high.
Trough or Alluvial stage
Advantages:
The site is near the commanded area and hence the length of the canal is
small.
The seepage losses are less in the canal.
The land is fertile demand of irrigation water is high.
Less number of cross drainage works required
Sub soil flow is comparatively less.

Disadvantages:
The river section is quite wide and hence the length of the weir structure is
large.
Meandering tendency of river demands extensive river training works.
Construction material is usually not available locally.
The cost of headworks is usually more due to poor foundation
There is problem of silt in the canal.
Delta stage

The delta stage is not suitable for location of a diversion headworks because the
river section is excessively wide, and the river has a shifting tendency.

There is no suitable compact commanded area.

Since the water table is also high, there is not much need of irrigation.

Therefore the choice is usually between the locations of diversion headworks in the
boulder stage and in the trough stage.
Ideal site for a diversion headwork

The river section at the site should be narrow and

well defined.
The river should have high, well defined
inerodible and non submersible banks so that the
cost of river training works is minimum.
The canals taking off from the diversion
headworks should be quite economical and
should have a large commanded area.
The site should be such that the weir/barrage can
be aligned at right angles to the direction of flow
in river. Length of weir should be minimum.
Ideal site for a diversion headwork

There should be suitable location for other

components of diversion head works.
Diversion head works should not submerge costly
land and properties on its upstream.
Good foundation should be available at the site.
The required materials of construction should be
available near the site.
Site should be easily accessible by road or rail.
Overall cost of project should be minimum.
Components of Diversion Head
work
1. Weir/Barrage
2. Undersluices
3. Divide wall
4. Fish ladder
5. Pocket/Approach channel
6. Canal head regulator
7. Silt excluder
8. River training works
Components of Diversion
Headworks
Weir or Barrage

Weir is a raised concrete or masonry crest

wall constructed across the river to raise its
water level and divert the water into the
canal. It may be provided with a small
shutter on its top.
Barrage is practically a low weir with an

adjustable gate over this low weir. Heading

up of water is affected by gate. Barrage
provides a better control.
Weir
Barrage
Weir
Weir
Barrage
Barrage
Difference between weir and barrage

WEIR
Raised concrete crest wall with small
shutters on its top
Most of the pounding is done by the solid
wall and very little, if any, by the shutters
No control over the water level
After long period, it becomes ineffective
due to silt deposition.
Less costly
BARRAGE
It has a low crest wall, with high gates.
Most of the pounding is done by gates
Better control over the water levels by a
suitable manipulation of gates
No silting problem
Costly
Types of Weir
1. Vertical Drop Weir
2. Rockfill Weir
3. Concrete Glacis or Sloping Weir
Types of Weir
Vertical Drop Weir
Consists of a masonry wall with a

vertical or nearly vertical downstream

face and a horizontal concrete floor.
Mainly built as gravity weir

Not commonly used nowadays

Suitable for small drops

Suitable for any foundation

Vertical Drop Weir

Vertical Drop Weir
Vertical Drop Weir
Concrete Sloping Weir
Rockfill weir
Rockfill weir
In addition to main weir, there are number
of core walls.
Space between the core walls is filled with

fragments of rock called rockfill.

Suitable for fine sand foundation.
Requires lot of rockfill to be economical.
CONCRETE SLOPING WEIR
Floor made of concrete
Sheet piles of sufficient depth provided at the u/s
and d/s ends
Sometimes intermediate piles are also provided
Hydraulic jump is developed at the d/s slope due
to which considerable amount of energy is
dissipated
Suitable on pervious foundations
Concrete sloping Barrage
Scouring Sluices or Under
Sluices

The Scouring sluices are the openings provided at the

base of the weir or barrage. These openings are
provided with adjustable gates. Normally, the gates
are kept closed.

The suspended silt goes on depositing in front of the

canal head regulator. When the silt deposition
becomes appreciable the gates are opened and the
deposited silt is loosened with an agitator mounting on
a boat. The muddy water flows towards the
downstream side through the scouring sluices. The
gates are closed. But, at the period of flood, the gates
are kept opened.

Similar to sloping weir, but with low crest

Under Sluices
 Divide Wall

The Divide Wall is a long wall constructed at right angle to

the weir or barrage, it may be constructed with with stone
stone
masonry or cement concrete. On the upstream side, the wall
is extended just to cover the canal regulator and and on
on the
the
down stream side, it is extended up to the launching apron.
The functions of the divide wall are as follows,

(a) To form a still water pocket in front of the canal head so

that the suspended silt can be settled down which then later
can be cleared through the scouring sluices from time to
time.

(b) It controls the eddy current or cross current in front of

the canal head.

(c) It provides a straight approach in front of the canal head.

(d) It resists the overturning effect on the weir or barrage

caused by the pressure of the impounding water.
Divide Wall
Fish Ladder
The
Fish Ladder is provided just by the
side of the divide wall for the movement of
fishes. Rivers are important source of
fishes. There are various types of fish in
the river. The nature of fish varies from
type to type. But in general, the tendency
of fish is to move from upstream to
downstream in winters and from
downstream to upstream in monsoons.
This movement is essential for their
survival.
Fish Ladder

Due to construction of weir or barrage, this

movement gets obstructed, and is detrimental to
the fishes. For the movement of the fishes along
the course of the river, the fish ladder is essential.

It consists of an inclined channel with a slope not

exceeding 1in 10. In the fish ladder, the baffle
walls are constructed in the zigzag manner so that
the velocities of flow within the ladder does not
exceed 3 m/s. The width, length, and height of the
fish ladder depends on the nature of the river and
the type of the weir or barrage.
Fish Ladder
Fish Ladder
Fish Ladder
Canal Head Regulator

Provided at the head of offtaking canal

Location should be such that it should

reduce silt entry into the canal and also

avoid backflow.
Axis of head regulator makes an angle of 90

degree to 120 degree with the axis of the

weir.
Regulates the supply of water into the canal

Prevents floods from entering the canal

Canal Head Regulator

Canal Head Regulator
Silt Control Devices
Special devices provided to control silt entry
into the canal
1. Silt excluder
2. Silt ejector
Silt Excluder

When still pocket is formed in front of the

canal head by constructing the divide wall,
then it is found that the lower layer of water
contains heavy silt and the upper layer
contains very fine silt. The fine silt is very
fertile and it may be allowed to enter the
canal. But the heavy silt causes
sedimentation in the pocket..
To eliminate the suspended heavy silt, the

silt excluder is provided.

It consists of a series of tunnels starting from

the side of the head regulator up to the

divide wall.
Silt Excluder

The tunnel nearest to the head regulator is

longest, and the successive tunnels decrease
in length, the tunnel nearest to the divide wall
is shortest. The tunnels are covered by R.C.C.
Slab. The top level of the slab is kept below
the sill level of the head regulator. So, the
completely clear water is allowed to flow in
the canal through the head regulator. The
suspended heavy silt carried by the water
enters the silt excluder tunnels and passes
out through the scouring sluices.
Silt Excluder

Silt excluders are those works which are

constructed on the bed of the river,
upstream of the head regulator. The
clearer water enters the head regulator and
silted water enters the silt excluder. In this
type of works, the silt is, therefore, removed
from the water before it enters the canal.
Silt excluder
Silt Ejectors

Silt ejectors, also called silt extractors, are

those devices which extract the silt from the
canal water after the silted water has
traveled a certain distance in the off-take
canal. These works are, therefore, constructed
on the bed of the canal, and little distance
downstream from the head regulator.

To remove silt which is already there in the canal

Consists of no:of tunnels of span=width of canal

Horizontal slab over the top of the tunnel at a

level higher than canal bed level
 Water containing silt will be discharged by
the silt ejector to an escape channel
Expensive than silt excluder
It should be located neither very close to

head regulator nor very far from it

Silt Ejectors
 River Training Works
Rivers change their course and may
overflow their banks
River training works are required to stabilize

the river channel along a certain alignment

Types

1. Marginal Bunds or Levees

2. Guide Banks
Marginal Bunds or Levees

The marginal bunds or levees are earthen

embankments which are constructed
parallel to the river bank on one or both the
banks according to the condition.
Marginal Bunds

The Marginal Bunds are constructed for the

following purposes.
(a) It prevents the flood water or storage

water from entering the surrounding area.

(b) It retains the flood water or storage

water within a specified section.

(c) It Protects the towns and village from

devastation during the heavy flood.

(d) It protects valuable agricultural lands.

Guide Bank

When a barrage is constructed across a river which

flows through the alluvial soil, the guide banks
must be constructed on both the approaches to
protect the structure from erosion. It is an earthen
embankment with curved head on both the ends.

The Guide Bank serves the following purposes.

It protects the barrage from the effect of scouring

and erosion.

It controls the tendency of changing the course of

the river.

It controls the velocity of the flow near the

structure.
Guide Bank