Short-Circuit Analysis IEC Standard

Short-Circuit Analysis
IEC Standard
©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

CORTO CIRCUITO
Características principales:
 Estándar de ANSI/IEEE & IEC.

 Análisis de fallas transitorias
(IEC 61363).
 Efecto de Arco (NFPA 70E-
2000)
 Integrado con coordinación de
dispositivos de protección.
 Evaluación automática de
dispositivos.
©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 2

Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
• A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
– Verify protective device close and latch capability
– Verify protective device interrupting capability
– Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

(maximum fault kA)
– I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
– Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination

Types of Short-Circuit Faults

Types of Short-Circuit Faults
Types of SC Faults
•Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
•Three-Phase Grounded Fault
•Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
•Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
•Phase to Ground Fault
Fault Current
•IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all faults).
•In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G  .87 * I3-phase
•In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition
is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
Short-Circuit Phenomenon
v(t) i(t)
v(t)  Vm  Sin( t   )

v(t)
i(t)
di
v(t)  Ri  L  Vm  Sin(t   ) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
- t
R
Vm Vm
i(t)   sin(t   -  )   sin( -  ) e L
Z Z
                 
Steady State Transient
(DC Offset)

AC Current (Symmetrical) with
No AC Decay
DC Current

AC Fault Current Including the
DC Offset (No AC Decay)

Machine Reactance ( λ = L I )
AC Decay Current

Fault Current Including AC & DC Decay

IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation (IEC 909)
• Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current (I"k)
• Peak Short-Circuit Current (ip)
• Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current

(Ib)
• Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (Ik)

IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation Method
• Ik” = Equivalent V @ fault location divided by
equivalent Z
• Equivalent V is based bus nominal kV and c

factor
• XFMR and machine Z adjusted based on

cmax, component Z & operating conditions

Transformer Z Adjustment
• KT -- Network XFMR
• KS,KSO – Unit XFMR for faults on system side
• KT,S,KT,SO – Unit XFMR for faults in auxiliary

system, not between Gen & XFMR
• K=1 – Unit XFMR for faults between Gen &

XFMR

Syn Machine Z Adjustment
• KG – Synchronous machine w/o unit XFMR
• KS,KSO – With unit XFMR for faults on system

side
• KG,S,KG,SO – With unit XFMR for faults in

auxiliary system, including points between
Gen & XFMR

Types of Short-Circuits
• Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
– This is a short-circuit condition to which at least
one synchronous machine contributes a
prospective initial short-circuit current which is
more than twice the generator’s rated current, or
a short-circuit condition to which synchronous
and asynchronous motors contribute more than
5% of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current
( I"k) without motors.
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit

• Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
– This is a short-circuit condition during which the
magnitude of the symmetrical ac component of
available short-circuit current remains essentially
constant.

Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit

Factors Used in If Calc
• κ – calc ip based on Ik”
• μ – calc ib for near-to-gen & not meshed network
• q – calc induction machine ib for near-to-gen & not

meshed network
• Equation (75) of Std 60909-0, adjusting Ik for

near-to-gen & meshed network
• λmin & λmax – calc ik

IEC Short-Circuit Study Case

When these options

are selected
• Maximum voltage factor is used
• Minimum impedance is used (all negative

tolerances are applied and minimum
resistance temperature is considered)

When this option is

selected
• Minimum voltage factor is used
• Maximum impedance is used (all positive

tolerances are applied and maximum
resistance temperature is considered)

Voltage Factor (c)
• Ratio between equivalent voltage &
nominal voltage
• Required to account for:
• Variations due to time & place
• Transformer taps
• Static loads & capacitances
• Generator & motor subtransient behavior

Calculation Method
• Breaking kA is more
conservative if the option
No Motor Decay is
selected

IEC SC 909 Calculation

Device Duty Comparison

Mesh & Non-Mesh If
• ETAP automatically determines mesh & non-
meshed contributions according to individual
contributions
• IEC Short Circuit Mesh Determination

Method – 0, 1, or 2 (default)

L-G Faults

L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components

Sequence Networks

L-G Fault Sequence
Network Connections
If  3  Ia 0
3  VPr efault
If 
Z1  Z 2  Z0
if Zg  0

L-L Fault Sequence Network
Connections
I a 2   I a1
3  VPr efault
If 
Z1  Z 2

L-L-G Fault Sequence
Network Connections
I a 2  I a1  I a 0  0  I a
VPr efault
If 
 Z0 Z 2 
Z1   
 Z0  Z 2 
if Zg  0

Transformer Zero Sequence Connections

Solid Grounded Devices
and L-G Faults
Generally a 3 - phase fault is the
most severe case. L - G faults can be
greater if :
Z1  Z 2 & Z 0  Z1
If this conditions are true then :
I f3  I f 1
This may be the case if Generators or
Y/ Connected transformer are solidly
grounded.

Zero Sequence Model
• Branch susceptances and static
loads including capacitors will be
considered when this option is
checked
• Recommended by IEC for
systems with isolated neutral,
resonant earthed neutrals &
earthed neutrals with earth fault
factor > 1.4

Unbalanced Faults Display
& Reports
Complete reports that include individual
branch contributions for:
•L-G Faults
•L-L-G Faults
•L-L Faults
One-line diagram displayed results that

include:
•L-G/L-L-G/L-L fault current
contributions
•Sequence voltage and currents
•Phase Voltages

Transient Fault Current
Total Fault Current Waveform

Percent DC Current Waveform

AC Component of Fault Current Waveform

Top Envelope of Fault Current Waveform

Top Envelope of Fault Current Waveform

IEC Transient Fault Current
Calculation

& Reports
•L-G Faults
•L-L-G Faults
•L-L Faults

include:
contributions
•Phase Voltages

TEMA 2

Protective Device Coordination
ETAP Star

ETAP START PROTECCION Y COORDINACION
 Curvas para más de 75,000

dispositivos.
 Actualización automática de
Corriente de Corto Circuito.
 Coordinación tiempo-corriente de
dispositivos.
 Auto-coordinación de dispositivos.
 Integrados a los diagramas
unifilares.
 Rastreo o cálculos en diferentes
tiempos.

Agenda
• Concepts & Applications
• Star Overview
• Features & Capabilities
• Protective Device Type
• TCC Curves
• STAR Short-circuit
• PD Sequence of Operation
• Normalized TCC curves
• Device Libraries

Definition
• Overcurrent Coordination
– A systematic study of current responsive
devices in an electrical power system.

Objective
• To determine the ratings and settings of
fuses, breakers, relay, etc.
• To isolate the fault or overloads.

Criteria
• Economics
• Available Measures of Fault
• Operating Practices
• Previous Experience

Design
• Open only PD nearest (upstream) of the fault
or overload
• Provide satisfactory protection for overloads
• Interrupt SC as rapidly (instantaneously) as
possible
• Comply with all applicable standards and
codes
• Plot the Time Current Characteristics of
different PDs
Analysis
When:
• New electrical systems
• Plant electrical system expansion/retrofits
• Coordination failure in an existing plant

Spectrum Of Currents
• Load Current
– Up to 100% of full-load
– 115-125% (mild overload)
• Overcurrent
– Abnormal loading condition (Locked-Rotor)
• Fault Current
– Fault condition
– Ten times the full-load current and higher
Protection
• Prevent injury to personnel
• Minimize damage to components
– Quickly isolate the affected portion of the system
– Minimize the magnitude of available short-circuit

Coordination
• Limit the extent and duration of service
interruption
• Selective fault isolation
• Provide alternate circuits

Coordination
C D B A
t
A
C D B

Protection vs. Coordination
• Coordination is not an exact science
• Compromise between protection and
coordination
– Reliability
– Speed
– Performance
– Economics
– Simplicity

Required Data
• One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)
• Power Grid Settings
• Generator Data
• Transformer Data
– Transformer kVA, impedance, and connection
Motor Data
• Load Data
• Fault Currents
• Cable / Conductor Data
• Bus / Switchgear Data
• Instrument Transformer Data (CT, PT)
• Protective Device (PD) Data
– Manufacturer and type of protective devices (PDs)
– One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)

Study Procedure
• Prepare an accurate one-line diagram (relay
diagrams)
• Obtain the available system current spectrum
(operating load, overloads, fault kA)
• Determine the equipment protection guidelines
• Select the appropriate devices / settings
• Plot the fixed points (damage curves, …)
• Obtain / plot the device characteristics curves
• Analyze the results

Time Current Characteristics
• TCC Curve / Plot / Graphs
• 4.5 x 5-cycle log-log graph
• X-axis: Current (0.5 – 10,000 amperes)
• Y-axis: Time (.01 – 1000 seconds)
• Current Scaling (…x1, x10, x100, x100…)
• Voltage Scaling (plot kV reference)
• Use ETAP Star Auto-Scale

TCC Scaling Example
• Situation:
– A scaling factor of 10 @ 4.16 kV is selected for
TCC curve plots.
• Question
– What are the scaling factors to plot the 0.48 kV
and 13.8 kV TCC curves?

TCC Scaling Example
• Solution

Fixed Points
Points or curves which do not change regardless

of protective device settings:
• Cable damage curves
• Cable ampacities
• Transformer damage curves & inrush points
• Motor starting curves
• Generator damage curve / Decrement curve
• SC maximum fault points

Capability / Damage Curves
It2 I2t I2t
t
I 2t
2
Motor
Xfmr Cable
Gen

Cable Protection
• Standards & References
– IEEE Std 835-1994 IEEE Standard Power Cable
Ampacity Tables
– IEEE Std 848-1996 IEEE Standard Procedure for the
Determination of the Ampacity Derating of Fire-Protected
Cables
– IEEE Std 738-1993 IEEE Standard for Calculating the
Current- Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead
Conductors
– The Okonite Company Engineering Data for Copper and
Aluminum Conductor Electrical Cables, Bulletin EHB-98

Cable Protection
The actual temperature rise of a cable when exposed to

a short circuit current for a known time is calculated by:
2 t
A
 T2  234 
0.0297log  
 T1  234 
Where:
A= Conductor area in circular-mils
I = Short circuit current in amps
t = Time of short circuit in seconds
T1= Initial operation temperature (750C)
T2=Maximum short circuit temperature
(1500C)
Cable Short-Circuit Heating Limits
Recommended
temperature rise:
B) CU 75-200C

Shielded
Cable
The normal tape

width is 1½
inches

NEC Section 110‑14 C
• (c) Temperature limitations. The temperature rating associated with the
ampacity of a conductor shall be so selected and coordinated as to not exceed
the lowest temperature rating of any connected termination,
termination conductor, or
device. Conductors with temperature ratings higher than specified for
terminations shall be permitted to be used for ampacity adjustment, correction,
or both.
• (1) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated 100 amperes or less,
or marked for Nos. 14 through 1 conductors, shall be used only for conductors
rated 600C (1400F).
• Exception No. 1: Conductors with higher temperature ratings shall be permitted
to be used, provided the ampacity of such conductors is determined based on
the 6O0C (1400F) ampacity of the conductor size used.
• Exception No. 2: Equipment termination provisions shall be permitted to be
used with higher rated conductors at the ampacity of the higher rated
conductors, provided the equipment is listed and identified for use with the
higher rated conductors.
• (2) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated over 100 amperes, or
marked for conductors larger than No. 1, shall be used only with conductors
rated 750C (1670F).

Transformer Protection
– National Electric Code 2002 Edition
– C37.91-2000; IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Power
Transformers
– C57.12.59; IEEE Guide for Dry-Type Transformer Through-Fault Current
Duration.
– C57.109-1985; IEEE Guide for Liquid-Immersed Transformer Through-
Fault-Current Duration
– APPLIED PROCTIVE RELAYING; J.L. Blackburn; Westinghouse Electric
Corp; 1976
– PROTECTIVE RELAYING, PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS; J.L.
Blackburn; Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1987
– IEEE Std 242-1986; IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
–

Transformer Category
ANSI/IEEE C-57.109

Transformer Categories I, II

Transformer Categories III

Transformer
FLA
200
Thermal
t I2t = 1250
(D-D LL) 0.87
(sec)
Infrequent Fault
(D-R LG) 0.58
Frequent Fault Mechanical

2
2
K=(1/Z) t
Inrush
Isc
2.5 25 I (pu)

MAXIMUM RATING OR SETTING FOR OVERCURRENT DEVICE
PRIMARY SECONDARY
Over 600 Volts Over 600 Volts 600 Volts or Below
Transformer Circuit Fuse Circuit Fuse Circuit Breaker

Rated Breaker Rating Breaker Rating Setting or Fuse
Impedance Setting Setting Rating
Not more than 600 % 300 % 300 % 250% 125%

6% (250% supervised)
More than 6% 400 % 300 % 250% 225% 125%

and not more (250% supervised)
than 10%
AnyTable 450-3(a)
Location – Non-Supervised source: NEC

• Turn on or inrush current • Oil Level
• Internal transformer faults • Fans
• External or through faults of major • Oil Pumps
magnitude
• Pilot wire – Device 85
• Repeated large motor starts on the
transformer. The motor represents a • Fault withstand
major portion or the transformers KVA • Thermal protection – hot spot, top of oil
rating. temperature, winding temperature
• Harmonics • Devices 26 & 49
• Over current protection – Device 50/51 • Reverse over current – Device 67
• Ground current protection – Device • Gas accumulation – Buckholz relay
50/51G
• Over voltage –Device 59
• Differential – Device 87
• Voltage or current balance – Device 60
• Over or under excitation – volts/ Hz –
Device 24 • Tertiary Winding Protection if supplied
• Sudden tank pressure – Device 63 • Relay Failure Scheme
• Dissolved gas detection • Breaker Failure Scheme

Recommended Minimum
Winding and/or power system Winding and/or power system
Protective system grounded neutral grounded neutral ungrounded
Above
Up to 10 MVA Above 10 MVA Up to 10 MVA
10 MVA
Differential - √ - √
Time over current √ √ √ √

Instantaneous restricted
ground fault √ √ - -
Time delayed ground

fault √ √ - -
-
√ √
Gas detection
Over excitation -
√ √ √
Overheating - -
√ √
Question
What is ANSI Shift Curve?

Answer
• For delta-delta connected transformers, with
line-to-line faults on the secondary side, the
curve must be reduced to 87% (shift to the
left by a factor of 0.87)
• For delta-wye connection, with single line-to-

ground faults on the secondary side, the
curve values must be reduced to 58% (shift
to the left by a factor of 0.58)

Question
What is meant by Frequent and

Infrequent for transformers?

Infrequent Fault Incidence Zones for Category II & III Transformers
Source
Transformer primary-side protective device

(fuses, relayed circuit breakers, etc.) may be
selected by reference to the infrequent-fault-
incidence protection curve
Infrequent-Fault
Incidence Zone* Category II or III Transformer
Fault will be cleared by transformer

primary-side protective device
Optional main secondary –side protective device.
May be selected by reference to the infrequent-fault-
incidence protection curve
Fault will be cleared by transformer primary-side

protective device or by optional main secondary-
side protection device
Feeder protective device
Frequent-Fault Fault will be cleared by

Incidence Zone* feeder protective device
Feeders
* Should be selected by reference to the frequent-fault-incidence protection curve or for
transformers serving industrial, commercial and institutional power systems with secondary-side
conductors enclosed in conduit, bus duct, etc., the feeder protective device may be selected by
reference to the infrequent-fault-incidence protection curve.
Source: IEEE C57

Motor Protection

– IEEE Std 620-1996 IEEE Guide for the Presentation
of Thermal Limit Curves for Squirrel Cage Induction
Machines.
– IEEE Std 1255-2000 IEEE Guide for Evaluation of
Torque Pulsations During Starting of Synchronous
Motors
– ANSI/ IEEE C37.96-2000 Guide for AC Motor
Protection
– The Art of Protective Relaying – General Electric

Motor Protection
• Motor Starting Curve
• Thermal Protection
• Locked Rotor Protection
• Fault Protection

Motor Overload Protection
(NEC Art 430-32 – Continuous-Duty Motors)
• Thermal O/L (Device 49)

• Motors with SF not less than 1.15
– 125% of FLA
• Motors with temp. rise not over 40°C
– 125% of FLA
• All other motors
– 115% of FLA

Motor Protection – Inst. Pickup
1
I LOCKED 
ROTOR XS  X d "
Recommended Instantaneous Setting:

I
RELAY PICK UP  PICK UP
 1.6 TO 2
I LOCKED ROTOR
If the recommended setting criteria cannot be met, or where more sensitive

protection is desired, the instantaneous relay (or a second relay) can be set more
sensitively if delayed by a timer. This permits the asymmetrical starting component
to decay out. A typical setting for this is:
I PICK UP
RELAY PICK UP   1.2 TO 1.2
I LOCKED ROTOR
with a time delay of 0.10 s (six cycles at 60 Hz)

Locked Rotor Protection
• Thermal Locked Rotor (Device 51)
• Starting Time (TS < TLR)
• LRA
– LRA sym
– LRA asym (1.5-1.6 x LRA sym) + 10% margin

Fault Protection
(NEC Art / Table 430-52)
• Non-Time Delay Fuses
– 300% of FLA
• Dual Element (Time-Delay Fuses)
– 175% of FLA
• Instantaneous Trip Breaker
– 800% - 1300% of FLA*
• Inverse Time Breakers
– 250% of FLA
*can be set up to 1700% for Design B (energy efficient) Motor
Low Voltage Motor Protection
• Usually pre-engineered (selected from

Catalogs)
• Typically, motors larger than 2 Hp are
protected by combination starters
• Overload / Short-circuit protection

Low-voltage Motor
Ratings Range of ratings
Continuous amperes 9-250 —
Nominal voltage (V) 240-600 —
Horsepower 1.5-1000 —
Starter size (NEMA) — 00-9
Types of protection Quantity NEMA
designation
Overload: overload
relay elements
3 OL
Short circuit:
circuit breaker current 3 CB
trip elements
Fuses 3 FU
Undervoltage: inherent
with integral control
supply and three-wire
control circuit — —
Ground fault (when

specified): ground relay
with toroidal CT — —

Minimum Required Sizes of a NEMA
Combination Motor Starter System
FOR A 50 % CURRENT CAPACITY
FUSE SIZE
MAXIMUM CONDUCTOR LENGTH FOR ABOVE AND
CLASS J
FUSE
BELOW GROUND CONDUIT SYSTEMS. ABOVE GROUND CIRCUIT BREAKER
SYSTEMS HAVE DIRECT SOLAR EXPOSURE. 750 C
SIZE
CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE, 450 C AMBIENT
460V NEC FLC
CONDUCTOR
GROUNDING
MOTOR HP
STARTER
MINIMUM
SIZE
SIZE
LARGER GROUND
LENGTH FOR 1%
LENGTH FOR 1%
LARGER WIRE
CONDUCTOR
DROP WITH
USE NEXT
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM
VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE
LARGEST
MINIMUM
250% 200% 150%
DROP
NEXT
WIRE
WIRE
SIZE
SIZE
1 2.1 0 12 12 759 10 1251 15 15 15 5
1½ 3 0 12 12 531 10 875 15 15 15 6
2 3.4 0 12 12 468 10 772 15 15 15 7
3 4.8 0 12 12 332 10 547 20 20 15 10
5 7.6 0 12 12 209 10 345 20 20 15 15
7½ 11 1 12 10 144 8 360 30 25 20 20
10 14 1 10 8 283 6 439 35 30 25 30
15 21 2 10 8 189 6 292 50 40 30 45
20 27 2 10 6 227 4 347 70 50 40 60
25 34 2 8 4 276 2 407 80 70 50 70
30 40 3 6 2 346 2/0 610 100 70 60 90
40 52 3 6 2 266 2/0 469 150 110 90 110
50 65 3 2 2/0 375 4/0 530 175 150 100 125
60 77 4 2 2/0 317 4/0 447 200 175 125 150
75 96 4 2 4/0 358 250 393 250 200 150 200
100 124 4 1 250 304 350 375 350 250 200 250
125 156 5 2/0 350 298 500 355 400 300 250 350
150 180 5 4/0 500 307 750 356 450 350 300 400

Required Data - Protection of a
Medium Voltage Motor
• Rated full load current
• Service factor
• Locked rotor current
• Maximum locked rotor time (thermal limit curve) with the motor at ambient and/or
operating temperature
• Minimum no load current
• Starting power factor
• Running power factor
• Motor and connected load accelerating time
• System phase rotation and nominal frequency
• Type and location of resistance temperature devices (RTDs), if used
• Expected fault current magnitudes
• First ½ cycle current
• Maximum motor starts per hour

Medium-Voltage Class E Motor Controller
Class El
Class E2 (with
Ratings (without
fuses)
fuses)
Nominal system voltage 2300-6900 2300-6900
Horsepower 0-8000 0-8000
Symmetrical MVA interrupting 25-75 160-570
capacity at nominal
system voltage
NEMA
Types of Protective Devices Quantity
Designation
Overload, or locked Rotor, Phase Balance
or both:
Thermal overload relay 3 OL OC TR/O
Current balance relay 1 BC NEMA Class E1
3
TOC relay
3 Negative-sequence voltage 1 — medium voltage starter
IOC relay plus time delay
relay (per bus), or both
Thermal overload relay 3 OL
Undervoltage:
TOC relay 3 OC Inherent with integral
IOC relay plus time delay 3 TR/OC control supply and three-
wire control circuit, when
voltage falls sufficiently to — UV
Short Circuit:
permit the contractor to
open and break the seal-in
Fuses, Class E2 3 FU circuit
IOC relay, Class E1 3 OC Temperature:
Temperature relay,
Ground Fault operating from resistance — OL
sensor or thermocouple in
TOC residual relay 1 GP stator winding
NEMA Class E2 medium
Overcurrent relay with voltage starter
1 GP
toroidal CT
Starting Current of a 4000Hp, 12 kV,
1800 rpm Motor
First half cycle current showing

current offset.
Beginning of run up current

showing load torque pulsations.
Starting Current of a 4000Hp, 12 kV,
1800 rpm Motor - Oscillographs
Motor pull in current showing motor

reaching synchronous speed
Thermal Limit Curve
Thermal Limit Curve
Typical
Curve
(49)
I2T
O/L
tLR MCP
(51) 200 HP
ts
Starting Curve
MCP (50)
LRAs LRAasym
Protective Devices
• Fuse
• Overload Heater
• Thermal Magnetic
• Low Voltage Solid State Trip
• Electro-Mechanical
• Motor Circuit Protector (MCP)
• Relay (50/51 P, N, G, SG, 51V, 67, 49, 46, 79, 21, …)

Fuse (Power Fuse)
• Non Adjustable Device (unless electronic)
• Continuous and Interrupting Rating
• Voltage Levels (Max kV)
• Interrupting Rating (sym, asym)
• Characteristic Curves
– Min. Melting
– Total Clearing
• Application (rating type: R, E, X, …)

Fuse Types
• Expulsion Fuse (Non-CLF)
• Current Limiting Fuse (CLF)
• Electronic Fuse (S&C Fault Fiter)
Total Clearing
Time Curve
Minimum Melting
Time Curve
Current Limiting Fuse
(CLF)
• Limits the peak current of short-circuit
• Reduces magnetic stresses (mechanical

damage)
• Reduces thermal energy
Current Limiting Action
Ip
Current (peak amps)
t a = t c – tm
Ip’
ta = Arcing Time
tm = Melting Time
tc = Clearing Time
tm ta Time (cycles)
tc Ip = Peak Current

Ip’ = Peak Let-thru Current Slide 110
© 1996-2009
©1996-2009 Operation OperationInc.
Technology, Technology, Inc. Notes:
– Workshop – Workshop Notes: Protective
Short-Circuit IEC Device Coordination Slide 111
Let-Through Chart
7% PF (X/R = 14.3)
Peak Let-Through Amperes
230,000
300 A
12,500 100 A
60 A
5,200 100,000
Symmetrical RMS Amperes

Fuse
Generally:
• CLF is a better short-circuit protection

• Non-CLF (expulsion fuse) is a better
Overload protection
• Electronic fuses are typically easier to
coordinate due to the electronic control
adjustments
Selectivity Criteria
Typically:
• Non-CLF: 140% of full load
• CLF: 150% of full load
• Safety Margin: 10% applied to Min
Melting (consult the fuse manufacturer)
Molded Case CB
• Thermal-Magnetic Types
• Magnetic Only • Frame Size
• Motor Circuit Protector • Poles
(MCP)
• Integrally Fused (Limiters) • Trip Rating
• Current Limiting • Interrupting Capability

• High Interrupting Capacity • Voltage
• Non-Interchangeable Parts
• Insulated Case (Interchange
Parts)
MCCB
MCCB with SST Device
Thermal Maximum
Thermal Minimum
Magnetic
(instantaneous)
LVPCB
• Voltage and Frequency Ratings
• Continuous Current / Frame Size / Sensor
• Interrupting Rating
• Short-Time Rating (30 cycle)
• Fairly Simple to Coordinate
• Phase / Ground Settings
• Inst. Override
LT PU
CB 2
CB 1
LT Band
CB 2
ST PU 480 kV
CB 1
IT
ST Band
If =30 kA
Inst. Override
Overload Relay / Heater
• Motor overload protection is provided by a
device that models the temperature rise of
the winding
• When the temperature rise reaches a point
that will damage the motor, the motor is de-
energized
• Overload relays are either bimetallic, melting
alloy or electronic
Overload Heater (Mfr. Data)
Question
What is Class 10 and Class 20 Thermal
OLR curves?
Answer
• At 600% Current Rating:
– Class 10 for fast trip, 10
seconds or less
– Class 20 for, 20 seconds or
less (commonly used) 20
– There is also Class 15, 30

for long trip time (typically
provided with electronic
overload relays)
6
Answer
Overload Relay / Heater
• When the temperature at the combination motor starter is more than
±10 °C (±18 °F) different than the temperature at the motor, ambient
temperature correction of the motor current is required.
• An adjustment is required because the output that a motor can safely
deliver varies with temperature.
• The motor can deliver its full rated horsepower at an ambient
temperature specified by the motor manufacturers, normally + 40 °C.
At high temperatures (higher than + 40 °C) less than 100% of the
normal rated current can be drawn from the motor without shortening
the insulation life.
• At lower temperatures (less than + 40 °C) more than 100% of the
normal rated current could be drawn from the motor without shortening
the insulation life.
Overcurrent Relay
• Time-Delay (51 – I>)
• Short-Time Instantaneous ( I>>)
• Instantaneous (50 – I>>>)
• Electromagnetic (induction Disc)
• Solid State (Multi Function / Multi Level)
• Application
© 1996-2009
©1996-2009 Operation OperationInc.
Technology, Technology, Inc. Notes:
– Workshop – Workshop Notes: Protective
Short-Circuit IEC Device Coordination Slide 129
Time-Overcurrent Unit
• Ampere Tap Calculation
– Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x A.T. Setting
– Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT
Ratio
– Multiples of A.T. = IR/A.T. Setting
CT IL
= IL/(CT Ratio x A.T. Setting)
IR
51
Instantaneous Unit
• Instantaneous Calculation
– Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x IT Setting
– Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT
Ratio
– Multiples of IT = IR/IT Setting
CT IL
= IL/(CT Ratio x IT Setting)
IR
50
Relay Coordination
• Time margins should be maintained between T/C
curves
• Adjustment should be made for CB opening time
• Shorter time intervals may be used for solid state
relays
• Upstream relay should have the same inverse T/C
characteristic as the downstream relay (CO-8 to
CO-8) or be less inverse (CO-8 upstream to CO-6
downstream)
• Extremely inverse relays coordinates very well with
CLFs
Situation
4.16 kV
CT 800:5 50/51 Relay: IFC 53
CB
Cable
CU - EPR
1-3/C 500 kcmil
Isc = 30,000 A
5 MVA
DS
6%
Calculate Relay Setting (Tap, Inst. Tap & Time Dial)

For This System
Solution
5,000kVA
Transformer: IL   694 A
3  4.16kV
5 IL
IR  IL   4.338 A
800
IR
I Inrsuh  12  694  8,328 A R CT
Set Relay:
125%  4.338  5.4 A
TAP  6.0 A (6/4.338  1.38)
TD  1
5
Inst (50)  8,328   52.1A  55 A
800
Question
What T/C Coordination interval should be

maintained between relays?
Answer
B
A
t CB Opening Time
+
Induction Disc Overtravel (0.1 sec)
+
Safety margin (0.2 sec w/o Inst. & 0.1 sec w/ Inst.)
Recloser
• Recloser protects electrical transmission systems from temporary
voltage surges and other unfavorable conditions.
• Reclosers can automatically "reclose" the circuit and restore normal
power transmission once the problem is cleared.
• Reclosers are usually designed with failsafe mechanisms that prevent
them from reclosing if the same fault occurs several times in
succession over a short period. This insures that repetitive line faults
don't cause power to switch on and off repeatedly, since this could
cause damage or accelerated wear to electrical equipment.
• It also insures that temporary faults such as lightning strikes or
transmission switching don't cause lengthy interruptions in service.
Recloser Types
• Hydraulic
• Electronic
– Static Controller
– Microprocessor Controller
Recloser Curves
TEMA 3
Transient Stability

Topics
• What is Transient Stability (TS)
• What Causes System Unstable
• Effects When System Is Instable
• Transient Stability Definition
• Modeling and Data Preparation
• ETAP TS Study Outputs
• Power System TS Studies
• Solutions to Stability Problems
What is Transient Stability
• TS is also called Rotor Angle Stability
Something between mechanical system and
electrical system – energy conversion
• It is a Electromechanical Phenomenon
Time frame in milliseconds
• All Synchronous Machines Must Remain in
Synchronism with One Another
Synchronous generators and motors
This is what system stable or unstable means
• Torque Equation (generator case)
T = mechanical torque
P = number of poles
air = air-gap flux
Fr = rotor field MMF
 = rotor angle
• Swing Equation
M = inertia constant
D = damping constant
Pmech = input mechanical power
Pelec = output electrical power
What Causes System Unstable
• From Torque Equation

T (prime mover)
Rotor MMF (field winding)
Air-Gap Flux (electrical system)
• From Swing Equation
Pmech
Pelec
Different time constants in mechanical and
electrical systems
What Causes System Unstable
• In real operation
Short-circuit
Loss of excitation
Prime mover failure
Loss of utility connections
Loss of a portion of in-plant generation
Starting of a large motor
Switching operations
Impact loading on motors
Sudden large change in load and generation
Effects When System Is Instable
• Swing in Rotor Angle (as well as in V, I, P,

Q and f)
Case 1: Steady-state stable

Case 2: Transient stable
Case 3: Small-signal unstable
Case 4: First swing unstable
• A 2-Machine
Example
• At  = -180º
(Out-of-Step,
Slip the Pole)
• Synchronous machine slip poles –

generator tripping
• Power swing
• Misoperation of protective devices
• Interruption of critical loads
• Low-voltage conditions – motor drop-offs
• Damage to equipment
• Area wide blackout
• …
Transient Stability Definition
• Examine One Generator
• Power Output Capability Curve
  is limited to 180º
Transient Stability Definition
• Transient and Dynamic Stability Limit
 After a severe disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady-state operating
condition without a prolonged loss of
synchronism
 Limit:  < 180 during swing
Modeling and Data Preparation
• Synchronous Machine
 Machine
 Exciter and AVR
 Prime Mover and Governor / Load Torque
 Power System Stabilizer (PSS) (Generator)
• Typical synchronous machine data
• Induction Machine
 Machine
 Load Torque
• Power Grid
 Short-Circuit Capability
 Fixed internal voltage and infinite inertia
• Load
 Voltage dependency
 Frequency dependency
• Load
• Events and Actions
Device Type Action
Bus 3-P Fault L-G Fault Clear Fault
Branch Fraction Clear
Fault Fault
PD Trip Close
Generator Droop / Start Loss Exc. P Change V Change Delete
Isoch
Grid P Change V Change Delete
Motor Accelerate Load Delete
Change
Lumped Load Load Delete
Change
MOV Start
Wind Turbine Disturbance Gust Ramp
MG Set Emergency Main
Power System TS Studies
• Fault
 3-phase and single phase fault
 Clear fault
 Critical Fault Clearing Time (CFCT)
 Critical System Separation Time (CSST)
• Bus Transfer
 Fast load transferring
• Load Shedding
 Under-frequency
 Under-voltage
• Motor Dynamic Acceleration
 Induction motor
 Synchronous motor
• Critical Fault Clearing Time (CFCT)
Fault Clear fault Clear fault Clear fault Clear fault
1 cycle 1 cycle
unstable
unstable
unstable
stable
Cycle
CFCT
• Critical Separation Time (CSST)

Fault Separation Separation Separation Separation
1 cycle 1 cycle
unstable
unstable
unstable
stable
Cycle
CSST
• Fast Bus Transfer
Motor residual voltage

1
0.8
Vmotor
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
s
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
• Fast Bus Transfer
ES = System equivalent per unit
 volts per hertz
EM = Motor residual per unit per
hertz
ER = Resultant vectorial voltage
in per unit volts per hertz
Ttransfer  10 cycles
  90 degrees
ER  1.33 per unit (133%)
• Load Shedding
• Motor Dynamic Acceleration
Important for islanded system operation
Motor starting impact
Generator AVR action
Reacceleration
Solution to Stability Problems
• Improve System Design

 Increase synchronizing power
• Design and Selection of Rotating Equipment
 Use of induction machines
 Increase moment of inertia
 Reduce transient reactance
 Improve voltage regulator and exciter
characteristics
Solution to Stability Problems
• Application of Power System Stabilizer

(PSS)
• Add System Protections
 Fast fault clearance
 Load shedding
 System separation
Out-Of-Step relay
…
TEMA 4
Harmonic Analysis

ARMONICAS
 Exploración de frecuencia.
 Flujo Armónico de Carga.
 Dimensionamiento y Diseño de
Filtros.
 Evaluación Automática del
límite de distorsión.
 Factores de la influencia del
teléfono (TIF & I*T)
Types of Power Quality
Problems
Waveform Distortion
• Primary Types of Waveform Distortion
– DC Offset
– Harmonics
– Interharmonics
– Notching
– Noise
Harmonics
• One special category of power quality
problems
• “Harmonics are voltages and/or currents

present in an electrical system at some
multiple of the fundamental frequency.”
(IEEE Std 399, Brown Book)
Nonlinear Loads
• Sinusoidal voltage
applied to a simple
nonlinear resistor
• Increasing the
voltage by a few
percent may cause
current to double
Fourier Representation
• Any periodic waveform
can be expressed as a
sum of sinusoids
• The sum of the
sinusoids is referred to
as Fourier Series (6-
pulse)
2 3 1 1 1 1
I ac  I d (cost  cos 3t  cos 7t  cos11t  cos13t
 5 7 11 13

  I h cos(ht   h )
h 1
Harmonic Sources
• Utilities (Power Grid)
– Known as “Background Harmonic”
– Pollution from other irresponsible customers
– SVC, HVDC, FACTS, …
– Usually a voltage source
• Synchronous Generators
– Due to Pitch (can be eliminated by fractional-
pitch winding) and Saturation
– Usually a voltage source
Harmonic Sources (cont’d)
• Transformers
– Due to magnetizing branch saturation
– Only at lightly loaded condition
– Usually a current source
• Power Electronic Devices
– Charger, Converter, Inverter, UPS, VFD, SVC, HVDC,
FACTS (Flexible alternating current transmission systems) …
– Due to switching actions
– Either a voltage source or a current source
Harmonic Sources (cont’d)
• Other Non-Linear Loads
– Arc furnaces, discharge lighting, …
– Due to unstable and non-linear process
– Either a voltage source or a current source
• In general, any load that is applied to a
power system that requires other than a
sinusoidal current
Harmonic I and V
Classification of Harmonics
• Harmonics may be classified as:
– Characteristic Harmonics
 Generally produced by power converters
– Non-Characteristic Harmonics
 Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge

lighting (from non-periodical waveforms)
Phase Angle Relationship
• Fundamental Frequency
• Third Order
• Fifth Order
• Seventh Order
Order vs. Sequence
Characteristic Harmonics
Characteristic Harmonics
(cont’d)
Harmonic Spectrum
Harmonic-Related Problems
• Motors and Generators
– Increased heating due to iron and copper losses
– Reduced efficiency and torque
– Higher audible noise
– Cogging or crawling
– Mechanical oscillations
(cont’d)
• Transformers
– Parasitic heating
– Increased copper, stray flux and iron losses
• Capacitors (var compensators)

– Possibility of system resonance
– Increased heating and voltage stress
– Shortened capacitor life
(cont’d)
• Power Cables
– Involved in system resonance
– Voltage stress and corona leading to dielectric
failure
– Heating and derating
• Neutrals of four-wire systems (480/277V; 120/208V)
– Overheating
• Fuses
– Blowing
(cont’d)
• Switchgears
– Increased heating and losses
– Reduced steady-state current carrying capability
– Shortened insulation components life
• Relays
– Possibility of misoperation
• Metering
– Affected readings
(cont’d)
• Communication Systems
– Interference by higher frequency
electromagnetic field
• Electronic Equipment (computers, PLC)
– Misoperation
• System
– Resonance (serial and parallel)
– Poor power factor
Parallel Resonance
• Total impedance at resonance frequency
increases
• High circulating current will flow in the
capacitance-inductance loop
Parallel Resonance
Capacitor Banks
Capacitor Banks
Capacitor Banks
Say, Seventh Harmonic Current = 5% of 1100A = 55 A
Capacitor Banks
Resistance = 1% including cable and transformer

CAF = X/R = 7*0.0069/0.0012 =40.25
Resonant Current = 55*40.25 = 2214 A
Parallel Resonance (cont’d)
Cause: Source inductance resonates with
capacitor bank at a frequency
excited by the facilities harmonic
sources
Impacts: 1. Excessive capacitor fuse
operation
2. Capacitor failures
3. Incorrect relay tripping
4. Telephone interference
5. Overheating of equipment
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
– Also known as Harmonic Distortion Factor
(HDF), is the most popular index to measure the
level of harmonic distortion to voltage and current
– Ratio of the RMS of all harmonics to the
fundamental component
– For an ideal system THD = 0%
– Potential heating value of the harmonics relative
to the fundamental
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (cont’d)
– Good indicator of additional losses due to
current flowing through a conductor
– Not a good indicator of voltage stress in a
capacitor (related to peak value of voltage
waveform, not its heating value)

 i
F 2
THD  2
F1
Where Fi is the amplitude of the ith harmonic,

and F1 is that for the fundamental component.
Harmonic Distortion
Example
Find THD for this waveform
Harmonic Example
• Find THD for this Harmonic Spectrum
Adjustable Speed Drive –
Current Distortion
Adjustable Speed Drive –
Voltage Distortion
Harmonic Distortion
• Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD)
- Ratio of a given harmonic to fundamental
- To track magnitude of individual harmonic
Fi
IHD 
F1
• Root Mean Square (RMS) - Total
- Root Mean Square of fundamental plus all
harmonics
- Equal to fundamental RMS if Harmonics are
zero 
2
RMS  F
1
i
Harmonic Distortion
• Arithmetic Summation (ASUM)
– Arithmetic summation of magnitudes of all
components (fundamental and all harmonics)
– Directly adds magnitudes of all components to
estimate crest value of voltage and current
– Evaluation of the maximum withstanding ratings
of a device

ASUM   Fi
1
Harmonic Distortion
• Telephone Influence Factor (TIF)
– Weighted THD
– Weights based on interference to an audio
signal in the same frequency range
– Current TIF shows impact on adjacent
communication systems
 2
 W F i i
TIF  1
 2
F
1
i
Harmonic Distortion
• I*T Product (I*T)
– A product current components (fundamental
and harmonics) and weighting factors
H
I T   h h
( I
h 1
 T ) 2
where Ih = current component

Th= weighting factor
h = harmonic order (h=1 for fundamental)
H = maximum harmonic order to account
Triplen Harmonics
• Odd multiples of the
third harmonic
(h = 3, 9, 15, 21, …)
• Important issue for
grounded-wye systems
with neutral current
• Overloading and TIF problems
• Misoperation of devices due to presence of
harmonics on the neutral
Triplen Harmonics
Winding Connections
• Delta winding provides ampere turn balance
• Triplen Harmonics cannot flow
• When currents are balanced Triplens
behave as Zero Sequence currents
• Used in Utility Distribution Substations
• Delta winding connected to Transmission
• Balanced Triplens can flow

• Present in equal proportions on both sides
• Many loads are served in this fashion
Implications
• Neutral connections are susceptible to overheating
when serving single-phase loads on the Y side that
have high 3rd Harmonic
• Measuring current on delta side will not show the
triplens and therefore do not give a true idea of the
heating the transformer is subjected to
• The flow of triplens can be interrupted by appropriate
isolation transformer connection
• Removing the neutral connection in one or both Y
windings blocks the flow of Triplen harmonic current
• Three legged core transformers behave as if they have
a “phantom” delta tertiary winding
Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis
• Motors and Machines
– Represented by their equivalent negative
sequence reactance
• Lines and Cables
– Series impedance for low frequencies
– Long line correction including transposition and
distributed capacitance
Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis (cont’d)
• Transformers
– Leakage impedance
– Magnetizing impedance
• Loads
– Static loads reduce peak resonant impedance
– Motor loads shift resonant frequency due to
motor inductance
Reducing System
Harmonics
• Add Passive Filters
– Shunt or Single Tuned Filters
– Broadband Filters or Band Pass Filters
– Provide low impedance path for harmonic
current
– Least expensive
Reducing System
Harmonics (cont’d)
• Increase Pulse Numbers
– Increasing pulse number of convert circuits
– Limited by practical control problems
Reducing System
• Apply Transformer Phase Shifting
– Using Phase Shifting Transformers
– Achieve higher pulse operation of the total
converter installation
• In ETAP
– Phase shift is specified in the tab page of the
transformer editor
Reducing System
• Either standard phase shift or special phase
shift can be used
Reducing System
• Add Active Filters
– Instantly adapts to changing source and load

conditions
– Costly
– MVA Limitation
Voltage Distortion Limits
Recommended Practices for Utilities (IEEE
519): Bus Voltage Individual Total Voltage
Distortion Distortion
At
(%) THD (%)
PCC
69 kV and below 3.0 5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV 1.5 2.5
161.001 and above 1.0 1.5
In ETAP:
Specify Harmonic Distortion Limits in Harmonic
Page of Bus Editor:
Current Distortion Limits
Recommended Practices for General
Distribution Systems (IEEE 519):
TEMA 5
Motor Starting
Dynamic Acceleration

ARRANQUE DE MOTORES
 Aceleración dinámica de
motores.
 Parpadeo (Flicker) de tensión.
 Modelos dinámicos de motores.
 Arranque estático de motores.
 Varios dispositivos de arranque.
 Transición de carga.
Why to Do MS Studies?
• Ensure that motor will start with voltage drop
• If Tst<Tload at s=1, then motor will not start
• If Tm=Tload at s<sr, motor can not reach rated speed
• Torque varies as (voltage)^2
• Ensure that voltage drop will not disrupt other loads

• Utility bus voltage >95%
• 3% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes visible
• 5% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes irritating
• MCC bus voltage >80%
• Generation bus voltage > 93%
Why to Do MS Studies?
• Ensure motor feeders sized adequately
(Assuming 100% voltage at Switchboard or MCC)
• LV cable voltage drop at starting < 20%
• LV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 5%
• HV cable voltage drop at starting < 15%
• HV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 3%
• Maximum motor size that can be started across the line

• Motor kW < 1/6 kW rating of generator (islanded)
• For 6 MW of islanded generation, largest motor size < 1 MW
Motor Sizing
• Positive Displacement Pumps / Rotary Pumps
• p = Pressure in psi
• Q = fluid flow in gpm
• n = efficiency
• Centrifugal Pumps
• H = fluid head in feet
Motor Types
• Synchronous
• Salient Pole
• Round Rotor
• Induction
• Wound Rotor (slip-ring)
• Single Cage CKT Model
• Squirrel Cage (brushless)
• Double Cage CKT Model
Induction Motor Advantages
• Squirrel Cage
• Slightly higher efficiency and power factor
• Explosive proof
• Wound Rotor
• Higher starting torque
• Lower starting current
• Speed varied by using external resistances
Typical Rotor Construction
• Rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but

skewed
Wound Rotor
Operation of Induction
Motor
• AC applied to stator winding
• Creates a rotating stator magnetic field in air gap
• Field induces currents (voltages) in rotor
• Rotor currents create rotor magnetic field in air gap
• Torque is produced by interaction of air gap fields
Slip Frequency
• Slip represents the inability of the rotor to
keep up with the stator magnetic field
• Slip frequency
S = (ωs-ωn)/ωs where ωs = 120f/P
ωn = mech speed
Static Start - Example
Static Start - Example
Service Factor
Inrush Current
Resistance / Reactance
• Torque Slip Curve is changed by altering
resistance / reactance of rotor bars.
• Resistance ↑ by ↓cross sectional area or
using higher resistivity material like brass.
• Reactance ↑ by placing conductor deeper in
the rotor cylinder or by closing the slot at the
air gap.
Rotor Bar Resistance ↑
• Increase Starting Torque
• Lower Starting Current
• Lower Full Load Speed
• Lower Efficiency
• No Effect on Breakdown Torque
Rotor Bar Reactance ↑
• Lower Starting Torque
• Lower Starting Current
• Lower Breakdown Torque
• No effect on Full Load Conditions
Motor Torque Curves
Rotor Bar Design
• Cross section Large (low
resistance) and positioned deep in
the rotor (high reactance).
(Starting Torque is normal and
starting current is low).
• Double Deck with small conductor
of high resistance. During starting,
most current flows through the
upper deck due to high reactance
of lower deck. (Starting Torque is
high and starting current is low).
Rotor Bar Design
• Bars are made of Brass or
similar high resistance
material. Bars are close to
surface to reduce leakage
reactance. (Starting torque is
high and starting current is
low).
Load Torque – ID Fan
Load Torque – FD Fan
Load Torque – C. Pump
Motor Torque – Speed Curve
Double Cage Motor
Motor Full Load Torque
• For example, 30 HP 1765 RPM Motor
Motor Efficiency
• kW Saved = HP * 0.746 (1/Old – 1/New)
• $ Savings = kW Saved * Hrs /Year * $/kWh
Acceleration Torque
• Greater
Acceleration
Torque means
higher inertia
that can be
handled by the
motor without
approaching
thermal limits
Acceleration Torque
Operating Range
• Motor, Generator, or Brake
Rated Conditions
• Constant Power
Load(kva)
Ir
L1
Terminal Current
kvar
0.8 Terminal Voltage 1.0 0.8 1.0

Terminal Voltage
P = Tm Wm , As Vt ( terminal voltage ) changes from 0.8 to 1.1 pu, Wm

changes by a very small amount. There fore, P is approx constant since
Tm (α w²m) is approx. constant
Starting Conditions
• Constant Impedance
Starting Conditions Constant Impedance
P
It
Kva
LR
I LR
.8 kva .9 I LR
LR
0.9 Terminal Voltage 1.0 Vt (pu) 0.9 1.0
Terminal Voltage
Vt (pu)
KVA LR = Loched - rotor KVA at rated voltage = 2HP
2 ≡ Code letter factor ≡ Locked – rotor KVA ∕ HP
Z st = ______
KVA B ____
KVR ² Pu, Rst = Zst cos θ st , Xst= Zst sin θ st
KVA LR KVB
KVR = rated voltage KVB = Base voltage KVAB = Base power
Voltage Variation
• Torque is proportional to V^2
• Current is proportional to V
I
v1 100% voltage
80% voltage
p
R
ws wm 0 ws wm
0
Load
I
100% V
Tst α ( operating voltage) ²

_____________
Rated voltage
80% V
Ist α ( operating voltage)

_____________
Rated voltage
T st T’ T
st
Frequency Variation
• As frequency decreases, peak torque shifts toward lower
speed as synchronous speed decreases.
• As frequency decrease, current increases due reduced
impedance.
I
T W3 = 120
___f
em
F1 RPM
P
F1
F2 › F1
F2 › F1
0 WS1 WS2 Wm
0
WS1 WS2 Wm
Adjustable speed drive : Typical speed range for variable torque loads such as pumps and fans is 3/1,maximun is 8/1 ( 1.5 to 60 Hz)
Number of Poles Variation
• As Pole number increases, peak torque shifts toward lower
speed as synchronous speed decreases.
Nro. of poles variation
T
em
2 P - poles W′S = W S
___
P - poles 2
R
Load
0 W′S WS Wm
Rotor Z Variation
• Increasing rotor Z will shift peak torque towards lower
speed.
Rotor – Resistance Variation
r2 r3 r4
r1
Q
R
S
r1 › r2 › r3 › r4
Modeling of Elements
• Switching motors – Zlr, circuit model, or
characteristic model
• Synch generator - constant voltage behind
X’d
• Utility - constant voltage behind X”d
• Branches – Same as in Load Flow
• Non-switching Load – Same as Load flow
• All elements must be initially energized,
including motors to start
Motor Modeling
1. Operating Motor
– Constant KVA Load
2. Starting Motor
– During Acceleration – Constant Impedance
– Locked-Rotor Impedance
– Circuit Models
Characteristic Curves
After Acceleration – Constant KVA Load
Locked-Rotor Impedance
• ZLR = RLR +j XLR (10 – 25 %)
• PFLR is much lower than operating PD.
Approximate starting PF of typical squirrel
cage induction motor:
POWER FACTOR
HORSE POWER RATING
Circuit Model I
• Single Cage Rotor
– “Single1” – constant rotor resistance and
reactance
Circuit Model II
• Single Cage Rotor
– “Single2” - deep bar effect, rotor resistance and
reactance vary with speed [Xm is removed]
Circuit Model III
• Double Cage Rotor
– “DB1” – integrated rotor cages
Circuit Model IV
• Double Cage Rotor
– “DB2” – independent rotor cages
Characteristic Model
• Motor Torque, I, and PF as function of Slip
– Static Model
Calculation Methods I
• Static Motor Starting
– Time domain using static model
– Switching motors modeled as Zlr during starting and
constant kVA load after starting
– Run load flow when any change in system
• Dynamic Motor Starting

– Time domain using dynamic model and inertia model
– Dynamic model used for the entire simulation
– Requires motor and load dynamic (characteristic) model
Calculation Methods II
Static versus Dynamic
• Use Static Model When
– Concerned with effect of motor starting on other
loads
– Missing dynamic motor information
• Use Dynamic Model When

– Concerned with actual acceleration time
– Concerned if motor will actually start
MS Simulation Features
• Start/Stop induction/synchronous motors
• Switching on/off static load at specified loading category
• Simulate MOV opening/closing operations
• Change grid or generator operating category
• Simulate transformer LTC operation
• Simulate global load transition
• Simulate various types of starting devices
• Simulate load ramping after motor acceleration
Automatic Alert
• Starting motor terminal V
• Motor acceleration failure
• Motor thermal damage
• Generator rating
• Generator engine continuous
& peak rating
• Generator exciter peak rating
• Bus voltage
• Starting motor bus
• Grid/generator bus
• HV, MV, and LV bus
• User definable minimum time
span
Starting Devices Types
• Auto-Transformer • Y/D Winding
• Stator Resistor • Partial Wing
• Stator Reactor • Soft Starter
• Capacitor at Bus • Stator Current Limit
• Capacitor at Motor – Stator Current Control
Terminal – Voltage Control
• Rotor External Resistor – Torque Control
• Rotor External Reactor
Starting Device
• Comparison of starting conditions
Starting Device – AutoXFMR
• C4 and C3 closed initially

• C4 opened, C2 is closed with C3 still closed. Finally C3 is open
Starting Device – AutoXFMR
• Autotransformer starting
EX. 50% Tap
Vmcc
3IST
line
MCC 5VMCC IST VM
M 50%
VMCC tap
Autotransformer starter
PFST ( with autotransformer) = PFST ( without autotransformer)
Starting Device – YD Start
• During Y connection Vs = VL / √3
• Phase current Iy = Id / √3 and 3 to 1 reduction in torque
Starting Device – Rotor R
Starting Device – Stator R
• Resistor
RL XL
RLR
5VMCC VM
VMCC
50%
tap XLR
PFST ( with resistor) = 1-[pu tap setting ]² * [ 1- (PFST without resistor)²]
= 1- (0.5)² * [1-(PFST)²]
Starting Device Stator X
• Reactor
RL XL
RLR
5VMCC VM
VMCC
50%
tap XLR
PFST ( with reactor) = [pu tap setting ] * PFST (without reactor)
Transformer LTC Modeling
• LTC operations can be simulated in motor
starting studies
• Use global or individual Tit and Tot
V limit
Tit Tot
MOV Modeling I
• Represented as an impedance load during
operation
– Each stage has own impedance based on I, pf, Vr
– User specifies duration and load current for each stage
• Operation type depends on MOV status

– Open statusclosing operation
– Close statusopening operation
MOV Modeling II
• Five stages of operation
Opening Closing
Acceleration Acceleration
No load No load
Unseating Travel
Travel Seating
Stall Stall
• Without hammer blow  Skip “No Load” period
• With a micro switch  Skip “Stall” period
• Operating stage time extended if Vmtr < Vlimit
MOV Closing
• With Hammer Blow- MOV Closing
MOV Opening
• With Hammer Blow- MOV Opening
MOV Voltage Limit
• Effect of Voltage Limit Violation
I
ACCL STALL
VMTR < V LIMIT
UNSETTING
TRAVEL
Travel Tstl
Tacc Tpos
TEMA 6
Short-Circuit
ANSI Standard

CORTO CIRCUITO
 Estándar de ANSI/IEEE & IEC.

 Análisis de fallas transitorias
(IEC 61363).
 Efecto de Arco (NFPA 70E-
2000)
 Integrado con coordinación de
dispositivos de protección.
 Evaluación automática de
dispositivos.
Short-Circuit Analysis
Types of SC Faults
•Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
•Three-Phase Grounded Fault
•Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
•Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
•Phase to Ground Fault
Fault Current
•IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all faults).
•In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G  .87 * I3-phase
•In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition
is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
• A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
– Verify protective device close and latch capability
– Verify protective device Interrupting capability
– Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

(maximum fault kA)
– I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
– Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
• Power Company Supply
• In-Plant Generators
• Transformers (using negative tolerance)
• Reactors (using negative tolerance)
• Feeder Cables and Bus Duct Systems (at

lower temperature limits)
System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
• Overhead Lines (at lower temperature limit)
• Synchronous Motors
• Induction Motors
• Protective Devices
• Y0 from Static Load and Line Cable
Elements That Contribute
Current to a Short-Circuit
• Generator
• Power Grid
• Synchronous Motors
• Induction Machines
• Lumped Loads
(with some % motor load)
• Inverters
• I0 from Yg-Delta Connected Transformer
Elements Do Not Contribute
Current in PowerStation
• Static Loads
• Motor Operated Valves
• All Shunt Y Connected Branches
Short-Circuit Phenomenon
v(t) i(t)
v(t)  Vm  Sin( t   )
v(t)
i(t)
di
v(t)  Ri  L  Vm  Sin(t   ) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
- t
R
Vm Vm
i(t)   sin(t   -  )   sin( -  ) e L
Z Z
                 
Steady State Transient
(DC Offset)
AC Current (Symmetrical) with
No AC Decay
DC Current
© 1996-2009Operation
©1996-2009 OperationTechnology,
Technology,Inc.
Inc.––Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI Slide 305
AC Fault Current Including the
DC Offset (No AC Decay)
©1996-2009
OperationTechnology,
Technology,Inc.
Inc.––Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI Slide 306
Machine Reactance ( λ = L I )
AC Decay Current
Fault Current Including AC & DC Decay
ANSI Calculation Methods
1) The ANSI standards handle the AC Decay by varying
machine impedance during a fault.
ANSI
2) The ANSI standards handle the the dc

offset by applying multiplying factors. The
ANSI Terms for this current are:
•Momentary Current
•Close and Latch Current
•First Cycle Asymmetrical Current
Sources and Models of Fault
Currents in ANSI Standards
Sources
•Synchronous Generators
•Synchronous Motors & Condensers
•Induction Machines
•Electric Utility Systems (Power Grids)
Models
All sources are modeled by an internal
voltage behind its impedance.
E = Prefault Voltage
R = Machine Armature Resistance
X = Machine Reactance (X”d, X’d, Xd)
Synchronous Generators
Synchronous Generators are modeled
in three stages.
Synchronous Motors &

Condensers
Act as a generator to supply fault
current. This current diminishes as the
magnetic field in the machine decays.
Induction Machines
Treated the same as synchronous
Synchronous Reactance
motors except they do not contribute to
Transient Reactance the fault after 2 sec.
Subtransient Reactance Electric Utility Systems

The fault current contribution tends to
remain constant.
½ Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate momentary short-circuit current

and protective device duties at the ½ cycle after the fault.
1 ½ to 4 Cycle Network
This network is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuit current

and protective device duties 1.5-4 cycles after the fault.
30-Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate the steady-state short-circuit

current and settings for over current relays after 30 cycles.
Reactance Representation for
Utility and Synchronous Machine

½ Cycle 1 ½ to 4 Cycle 30 Cycle

X”d X”d X”d

Utility
X”d X”d X’d

Turbo Generator
Hydro-Gen with
X”d X”d X’d
Amortisseur
winding
Hydro-Gen without
0.75*X”d 0.75*X”d X’d
Amortisseur
winding

X”d X”d
Condenser
Synchronous X”d 1.5*X”d 

Motor
Reactance Representation for
Induction Machine
½ Cycle 1 ½ to 4
Cycle
>1000 hp , <= 1800 X”d 1.5*X”d

rpm
>250, at 3600 rpm X”d 1.5*X”d
All others, >= 50 hp 1.2*X”d 3.0*X”d
< 50 hp 1.67*X”d

Note: X”d = 1 / LRCpu
Device Duty and Usage of Fault Currents
from Different Networks
½ Cycle Currents 1 ½ to 4 Cycle
(Subtransient Currents
Network) (Transient Network)
Closing and Latching Interrupting

HV Circuit Breaker
Capability Capability
LV Circuit Breaker Interrupting Capability ---
---
Fuse Interrupting
Capability
SWGR / MCC Bus Bracing ---
Relay Instantaneous ---

Settings
30 Cycle currents are used for determining overcurrent settings.
Momentary Multiplying
Factor
MFm is calculated based on:

• Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)
• Location of fault (Remote / Local generation)
Comparisons of Momentary capability (1/2 Cycle)
SC Current Duty Device Rating

HV CB Asymmetrical RMS C&L RMS

Crest C&L RMS
HV Bus Asymmetrical RMS Asymmetrical RMS

Crest Crest
LV Bus Symmetrical RMS Symmetrical RMS

Asymmetrical RMS Asymmetrical RMS
Interrupting Multiplying
Factor
MFi is calculated based on:

• Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)
• Location of Fault (Remote / Local
generation)
• Type and Rating of CB
Comparisons of Interrupting Capability (1 ½ to 4
Cycle)

SC Current Duty Device Rating
Adj. Symmetrical RMS* Adj. Symmetrical RMS*

HV CB
Adj. Symmetrical RMS*** Symmetrical RMS

LV CB & Fuse
HV CB Closing and
Latching Duty
Calculate ½ Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using ½ Cycle Network.
• Calculate X/R ratio and Multiplying factor MFm
• Imom, rms, Asym = MFm * Imom, rms, sym
HV CB Interrupting Duty
Calculate 1½ to 4 Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using ½ Cycle Network.
• Determine Local and Remote contributions (A “local” contribution is

fed predominantly from generators through no more than one
transformation or with external reactances in series that is less than
1.5 times generator subtransient reactance. Otherwise the
contribution is defined as “remote”).
• Calculate no AC Decay ratio (NACD) and multiplying factor MFi
NACD = IRemote / ITotal

ITotal = ILocal + IRemote
(NACD = 0 if all local & NACD = 1 if all remote)
• Calculate Iint, rms, adj = MFi * Iint, rms, Symm

HV CB Interrupting
Capability
• CB Interrupting kA varies between Max kA and Rated kA
as applied kV changes – MVAsc capability.
• ETAP’s comparison between CB Duty of Adj.

Symmetrical kA and CB capability of Adjusted Int. kA
verifies both symmetrical and asymmetrical rating.
• The Option of C37.010-1999 standard allows user to

specify CPT.
• Generator CB has higher DC rating and is always

compared against maximum through SC kA.
LV CB Interrupting Duty
• LV CB take instantaneous action.
• Calculate ½ Cycle current Irms, Symm (I’f) from the ½

cycle network.
• Calculate X/R ratio and MFi (based on CB type).
• Calculate adjusted interrupting current Iadj, rms, symm =

MFi * Irms, Symm
Fuse Interrupting Duty
Calculate ½ Cycle current Iint, rms, symm from ½ Cycle Network.
• Same procedure to calculate Iint, rms, asymm as for CB.
L-G Faults
L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components
Sequence Networks
L-G Fault Sequence
Network Connections
If  3  Ia 0
3  VPr efault
If 
Z1  Z 2  Z0
if Zg  0
L-L Fault Sequence Network
Connections
I a 2   I a1
3  VPr efault
If 
Z1  Z 2
L-L-G Fault Sequence
Network Connections
I a 2  I a1  I a 0  0  I a
VPr efault
If 
 Z0 Z 2 
Z1   
 Z0  Z 2 
if Zg  0
Transformer Zero Sequence Connections
Solid Grounded Devices
and L-G Faults
Generally a 3 - phase fault is the
most severe case. L - G faults can be
greater if :
Z1  Z 2 & Z 0  Z1
If this conditions are true then :
I f3  I f 1
This may be the case if Generators or
Y/ Connected transformer are solidly
grounded.
& Reports
•L-G Faults
•L-L-G Faults
•L-L Faults

include:
contributions
•Phase Voltages
©1996-2009
Technology,Inc.
Inc.––Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI Slide 332
©1996-2009
Technology,Inc.
Inc.––Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI Slide 333
SC Study Case Info Page
SC Study Case Standard
Page
SC Study Case Adjustments
Page
Tolerance
Adjustments Length
Adjustments
•Transformer
Impedance •Cable Length
•Reactor •Transmission
Resistance Line Length
•Overload
Heater
Resistance
Temperature
Corrections
Adjust Fault •Transmission
Impedance Line Resistance
•L-G fault •Cable Resistance
Impedance
Tolerance Adjustments
Z 'Transformer  Z Transformer * (1  Tolerance )

Length'Cable  LengthCable * (1  Tolerance )
Length'TransmissionLine  LengthTransmissionLine * (1  Tolerance )
Positive tolerance value is used for IEC Minimum If calculation.

Negative tolerance value is used for all other calculations.
Adjustments can be applied Individually or Globally
Temperature Correction
(234.5  Tc )
R 'Copper '  RBASE *
(234.5  Tb )
(228.1  Tc )
R ' Alumi  RBASE *
(228.1  Tb)
RBASE  Resistance at base tempereature

R'  Resistance at operating temperature
Tb  Conductor base temperature in C
Tc  Conductor temperature limit in C
Temperature Correction can be applied

Individually or Globally
System for SC Study
Power Grid U1
X/R = 55
Gen1
Voltage Control
Design Setting:
%Pf = 85
MW = 4
Transformers Max Q = 9
T1 X/R Min Q = -3
PS =12
PT =12
ST =12
T2 X/R = 12
Lump1
Y open grounded
©1996-2009
Technology,Inc.
Inc.––Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI Slide 339
System for SC Study
Tmin = 40, Tmax = 90
System for SC Study
Short-Circuit Alerts
• Bus Alert
• Protective Device Alert
• Marginal Device Limit
Bus SC Rating
Type of Device Monitored Parameter Condition Reported
Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA Bracing Asymmetrical
MV Bus (> 1000 Volts)
Momentary Asymmetrical. crest kA Bracing Crest
Momentary Symmetrical. rms kA Bracing Symmetrical
LV Bus (<1000Volts)
Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA Bracing Asymmetrical
Protective Device Rating

Device Type ANSI Monitored Parameters IEC Monitored Parameters
LVCB Interrupting Adjusted Symmetrical. rms kA Breaking
Momentary C&L Making

Momentary C&L Crest kA N/A
HV CB
Interrupting Adjusted Symmetrical. rms kA Breaking
Fuse Interrupting Adjusted Symmetrical. rms kA Breaking
SPDT Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA Making

SPST Switches Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA Making
3-Phase Duty SC Results
Run a 3-phase Duty SC calculation for a
fault on Bus4. The display shows the
Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current.
©1996-2009
Technology,Inc.
Inc.––Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI Slide 344
Unbalance Fault Calculation
©1996-2009
Technology,Inc.
Inc.––Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI Slide 345
TEMA 7
Transient Stability

Time Frame of Power System
Dynamic Phenomena
Introduction
• TS is also called Rotor Stability, Dynamic
Stability
• Electromechanical Phenomenon
• All synchronous machines must remain in
synchronism with one another
• TS is no longer only the utility’s concern
• Co-generation plants face TS problems
Analogy
• Which vehicles will pushed hardest?

• How much energy gained by each vehicle?
• Which direction will they move?
• Height of the hill must they climb to go over?
Introduction (cont’d)
• System protection requires consideration of:
Critical Fault Clearing Time (CFCT)
Critical Separation Time (CST)
Fast load transferring
Load Shedding
…
Causes of Instability
• Short-circuits
• Loss of utility connections
• Loss of a portion of in-plant generation
• Starting of a large motor
• Switching operations (lines or capacitors)
• Impact loading on motors
• Sudden large change in load and generation
Consequences of Instability
• Synchronous machine slip poles –
generator tripping
• Power swing
• Misoperation of protective devices
• Interruption of critical loads
• Low-voltage conditions – motor drop-offs
• Damage to equipment
• Area wide blackout
• …
Synchronous Machines
• Torque Equation (generator case)
T = mechanical torque
P = number of poles
air = air-gap flux
Fr = rotor field MMF
 = rotor angle
Swing Equation
Synchronous Machines
(cont’d)
• Swing Equation
M = inertia constant
D = damping constant
Pmech = input mechanical power
Pelec = output electrical power
Rotor Angle Responses
• Case 1: Steady-state stable

• Case 2: Transient stable
• Case 3: Small-signal unstable
• Case 4: First swing unstable
Power and Rotor Angle
(Classical 2-Machine
Example)
(cont’d)
(Parallel Lines)
Both Lines In Service
One Line Out of Service
Equal Area Criterion
Equal Area Criterion
Equal Area - Stable
Equal Area – Unstable
Equal Area - Unstable
Power System Stability
Limit
• Steady-State Stability Limit
 After small disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady state operating
condition identical or close to the pre-
disturbance
 Limit:  < 90
Power System Stability
Limit (con’d)
• Transient and Dynamic Stability Limit
 After a severe disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady-state operating
condition without a prolonged loss of
synchronism
 Limit:  < 180 during swing
Generator Modeling
• Machine
Equivalent Model / Transient Model / Subtransient Model
• Exciter and Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR)
• Prime Mover and Speed Governor
• Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
Generator Modeling (con’d)
• Typical synchronous machine data
Factors Influencing TS
• Post-Disturbance Reactance seen from generator.
Reactance  Pmax 
• Duration of the fault clearing time.
Fault time  Rotor Acceleration  Kinetic Energy 
Dissipation Time during deceleration 
• Generator Inertia.
Inertia  Rate of change of Angle  Kinetic Energy 
• Generator Internal Voltage
Internal Voltage  Pmax 
Factors Influencing TS
• Generator Loading Prior To Disturbance
Loading  Closer to Pmax. Unstable during acceleration
• Generator Internal Reactance
Reactance  Peak Power  Initial Rotor Angle 
Dissipation Time during deceleration 
• Generator Output During Fault
Function of Fault Location and Type of Fault
Solution to Stability
Problems
• Improve system design
 Increase synchronizing power
• Design and selection of rotating equipment
 Use of induction machines
 Increase moment of inertia
 Reduce transient reactance
 Improve voltage regulator and exciter
characteristics
Problems
• Reduction of Transmission System
Reactance
• High Speed Fault Clearing
• Dynamic Braking
• Regulate Shunt Compensation
• Steam Turbine Fast Valving
• Generator Tripping
• Adjustable Speed Synchronous Machines
Problems
• HVDC Link Control
• Current Injection from VSI devices
• Application of Power System Stabilizer
(PSS)
• Add system protections
 Fast fault clearance
 Load Shedding
 System separation
TEMA 8
Load Flow Analysis

FLUJO DE CARGA
 Cálculo de los flujos de potencia.

 Diversas representaciones de las
cargas.
 Cálculo de los perfiles de tensión.
 Corrección del factor de potencia.
 Diagnóstico automático de equipos.
 Corrección automática de impedancias
por temperatura.
 Cálculo de pérdidas activas y reactivas.
System Concepts
Power in Balanced 3-Phase
S V I *
Systems S  3  S 1 LN
3 1
 3  V LL I *
 P  jQ
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor Leading Power Factor Current and Voltage
Leading & Lagging Power
Factors
ETAP displays lagging Power Factors as positive and leading Power Factors
as negative. The Power Factor is displayed in percent.
Leading Lagging
Power Power
Factor Factor P  jQ P - jQ P + jQ
3-Phase Per Unit System
kVA B S  3VI  If you have two bases:
IB    Then you may calculate the other two
3kVB V  3ZI
by using the relationships enclosed in
 SB  brackets. The different bases are:
(kVB ) 2 BI 
ZB   3VB  •IB (Base Current)
 
MVA B V
Z  B 
2
•ZB (Base Impedance)
 B SB  •VB (Base Voltage)
•SB (Base Power)
I actual Vactual
I pu  Vpu  ETAP selects for LF:
IB VB •100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
entire system.
Zactual Sactual
Z pu  Spu  •The kV rating of reference point is
used along with the transformer turn
ZB SB ratios are applied to determine the
base voltage for different parts of the
system.
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied
starting from the utility kV rating.
kVB1
To determine base voltage use:
N1
kV 
1
B kVB2
N2
kVB2
Transformer T7: The following equations are used to find
the impedance of transformer T7 in 100 MVA base.
X
Z pu   
R  x pu
X pu  R pu 
 
X
2
X
1    R 
R 
0.065(12.14) 0.06478
X pu   0.06478 R pu   0.005336
1  (12.14) 2 12.14
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where “n” stands for new and “o” stands for old.
2 2
o  VB   SnB 
o
 13.8   100 
Z pu  Z pu  n 
n
 o   (5.33 103  j0.06478)     (0.1115  j1.3538)
 VB   SB   13.5   5 
% Z  100  Z pu  11 .15  j135.38

Impedance Z1: The base voltage is determined by using the transformer turn ratio. The base
impedance for Z1 is determined using the base voltage at Bus5 and the MVA base.
kVutility 13.5 VB2 (4.0695) 2

VB    4.0695 ZB    0.165608
 N1  3.31 MVA 100
 N 2 
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
Zactual (0.1  j1)

Z pu    (0.6038  j6.0382)
ZB 0.1656
% Z  100  Z pu  60.38  j603.8
The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base
Load Flow Analysis
Load Flow Problem
• Given
– Load Power Consumption at all buses
– Configuration
– Power Production at each generator
• Basic Requirement
– Power Flow in each line and transformer
– Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
Load Flow Studies
• Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
– Voltage Profile
– Power Flows
– Current Flows
– Power Factors
– Transformer LTC Settings
– Voltage Drops
– Generator’s Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
– Total Generation & Power Demand
– Steady State Stability Limits
– MW & Mvar Losses
Size & Determine System
Equipment & Parameters
• Cable / Feeder Capacity
• Capacitor Size
• Transformer MVA & kV Ratings (Turn Ratios)
• Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting
• Current Limiting Reactor Rating & Imp.
• MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
• Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
• Generator’s Mvar Demand
• Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
Optimize Operating
Conditions
• Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
• Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits

of Equipment
• Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the

Maximum Ratings
• System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
• Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated

Calculation Process
• Non-Linear System
• Calculated Iteratively
– Assume the Load
Voltage (Initial Conditions)
– Calculate the Current I Assume VR
Calc: I = Sload / VR
– Based on the Current, Calc: Vd = I * Z
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
– Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR

– Re-use Load Voltage as initial condition until the
results are within the specified precision.
Load Flow Calculation
Methods
1. Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method

• Low Requirements on initial values,
but slow in
speed. 3. Fast-Decoupled Method
• Two sets of iteration equations: real
power – voltage angle,
reactive power – voltage magnitude.
2. Newton-Raphson Method • Fast in speed, but low in solution
• precision.
Fast in speed, but high requirement on
initial values. • Better for radial systems and
• systems with long lines.
First order derivative is used to speed up
calculation.
Load Nameplate Data
kWRated HP  0.7457 kVA  (kW ) 2  (kVar ) 2

kVARated  
PF  Eff PF  Eff kW
kVARated PF 
FLA3  kVA
3  kV kVA
I 3  1000 
kVARated ( 3  kV)
FLA1 
kV kVA
I1  1000 
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 % kV
loading conditions
Constant Power Loads
• In Load Flow calculations induction,
synchronous and lump loads are treated
as constant power loads.
• The power output remains constant even
if the input voltage changes (constant
kVA).
• The lump load power output behaves like
a constant power load for the specified %
motor load.
Constant Impedance Loads
• In Load Flow calculations Static Loads, Lump Loads
(% static), Capacitors and Harmonic Filters and Motor
Operated Valves are treated as Constant Impedance
Loads.
• The Input Power increases proportionally to the
square of the Input Voltage.
• In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as
capacitive loads for Power Factor Correction.
• MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads
because of their operating characteristics.
© 1996-2008 Operation
Technology, Inc.
Inc. ––Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes: Short-Circuit
Load Flow Analysis
IEC Slide
Slide 397
397
Constant Current Loads
• The current remains constant even if the
voltage changes.
• DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity.
• AC constant current loads may be used to test
UPS systems performance.
• DC Constant Current Loads may be defined in
ETAP by defining Load Duty Cycles used for
Battery Sizing & Discharge purposes.
Constant Current Loads
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Generator Operation Modes
Feedback Voltage
•AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
•Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
Governor Operating Modes
• Isochronous: This governor setting allows the
generator’s power output to be adjusted based on
the system demand.
• Droop: This governor setting allows the generator
to be Base Loaded, meaning that the MW output is
fixed.
Isochronous Mode
Droop Mode
Droop Mode
Droop Mode
Adjusting Steam Flow
Adjusting Excitation
In ETAP Generators and Power Grids have four operating
modes that are used in Load Flow calculations.
Swing Mode
•Governor is operating in
Isochronous mode
•Automatic Voltage Regulator
Voltage Control
Droop Mode
•Automatic Voltage Regulator
Mvar Control
Droop Mode
•Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR
action)
PF Control
Droop Mode
•AVR Adjusts to Power Factor
Setting
• In the Swing Mode, the voltage is kept fixed. P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
• In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q & 
are varied
• In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V & 
are varied
• If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are reached, the

model is changed to a Load Model (P & Q are kept fixed)
Generator Capability Curve
Maximum & Minimum
Reactive Power
Machine Rating (Power Factor Point)
Field Winding Heating Limit
Steady State Stability Curve
Armature Winding Heating Limit
Field Winding
Machine Rating
Heating Limit
(Power Factor
Point)
Steady State Stability Curve
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Power Flow
V1  V1  1 
 
V 2  V2  2 
S  V*I  P  jQ
V *V  V1*V2 V2 
2
 1 2 *SIN( 1   2 )  j *COS( 1   2 )  
X  X X 
V1*V2
P *SIN( 1   2 )
X
2
V1*V2 V2
Q *COS( 1   2 ) 
X X
Example: Two voltage sources designated as V1 and V2 are
connected as shown. If V1= 100 /0° , V2 = 100 /30° and X = 0 +j5
determine the power flow in the system.
V1  V 2 100  j0  (86.6  j50)

I 
X j5
I  10  j2.68
I
V1I*  100(10  j2.68)  1000  j268

V2 I*  (86.6  j50)(10  j2.68)  1000  j268
| I |2 X  10.352  5  536 var
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
1 1
Power Flow S
( V E)
sin   
0
X
2
( V E)
cos    
V
X X
2
2
0  
Real Power Flow
Reactive Power Flow
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
•kV value
•Percent of Nominal Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated  13.5 kVNo min al  13.8
kVCalculated
V%  100  97.83%
kVNo min al
For Bus5:
kVCalculated  4.03 kVNo min al  4.16
kVCalculated
V%   100  96.85%
kVNo min al
Lump Load Negative
Loading
Load Flow Adjustments
• Transformer Impedance
– Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation
tolerance
• Reactor Impedance
– Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
• Overload Heater
– Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
• Transmission Line Length

– Adjust Transmission Line Impedance based on possible length
variation tolerance
• Cable Length
– Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
Load Flow Study Case
Adjustment Page
Adjustments applied
•Individual
•Global
Temperature Correction
• Cable Resistance
• Transmission Line
Resistance
Allowable Voltage Drop
NEC and ANSI C84.1
Load Flow Example 1
Part 1
© 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Load Flow Example 1
Part 2
Load Flow Alerts
Equipment Overload Alerts
Bus Alerts Monitor Continuous Amps

Cable Monitor Continuous Amps
Reactor Monitor Continuous Amps
Line Monitor Line Ampacity
Transformer Monitor Maximum MVA Output
UPS/Panel Monitor Panel Continuous Amps
Generator Monitor Generator Rated MW
Protective Device Alerts
Protective Devices Monitored parameters % Condition reported
Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad

High Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad
Fuses Rated Current OverLoad
Contactors Continuous rated Current OverLoad
SPDT / SPST switches Continuous rated Current OverLoad
If the Auto Display
feature is active, the
Alert View Window will
appear as soon as the
Load Flow calculation
has finished.
© 1996-2009 Operation
Technology, Inc.
Inc. ––Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes: Short-Circuit
Load Flow Analysis
IEC Slide
Slide 431
431
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Load Flow Convergence
• Negative Impedance
• Zero or Very Small Impedance
• Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
• Long Radial System Configurations
• Bad Bus Voltage Initial Values
Voltage Control
• Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
• Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:

– Transformer Replacement
– Capacitor Addition
– Transformer Tap Adjustment
Under-Voltage Example
• Create Under Voltage • Method 2 - Shunt
Condition Capacitor
– Change Syn2 Quantity to 6. – Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8
(Info Page, Quantity Field) – 300 kvar 3 Banks
– Run LF – Voltage is improved
– Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under • Method 3 - Change Tap
Voltage Condition) – Place LTC on Primary of T6
• Method 1 - Change Xfmr – Select Bus8 for Control Bus
– Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8 – Select Update LTC in the
MVA, will notice slight Study Case
improvement on the Bus8 kV – Run LF
– Too Expensive and time – Bus Voltage Comes within
consuming specified limits
Mvar Control
• Vars from Utility • Method 2 – Add Capacitor
– Add Switch to CAP1 – Close Switch
– Open Switch – Run Load Flow
– Run LF
– Var Contribution from the
Utility reduces
• Method 1 – Generator
– Change Generator from • Method 3 – Xfmr MVA
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control – Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
– Set Mvar Design Setting to 5 – Will notice decrease in the
Mvars contribution from the Utility
Panel Systems
Panel Boards
• They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
• Panel System is used for representing power
and lighting panels in electrical systems
Click to drop once on OLV

Double-Click to drop multiple panels
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Assumptions
• Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
• Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3-
Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/√3) times the rated panel voltage
• The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
• There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
• Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A A
B B
C C
IBC IB = IBC IC = -IBC
Load
LoadB
Angle by which load current I BC lags the load voltage = θ

Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C: For load connected to phase B

SBC = VBC.IBC SB = VB.IB
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos θ PB = VB.IB.cos (θ - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin (θ - 30)
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin θ

And, for load connected to phase C

SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos (θ + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin (θ + 30)
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest

voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4-
wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type

is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Select ANSI or IEC

Breakers or Fuses from
Main Device Library
Schedule Page
Circuit Numbers with

Standard Layout
Circuit Numbers with

Column Layout
Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the
total panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected load’s
demand factor status
Rating Tab
Enter per phase VA, W, or

Amperes for this load.
For example, if total Watts

for a 3-phase load are
1200, enter W as 400
(=1200/3)
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are

calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Protective Device Tab
Library Quick Pick -

LV Circuit Breaker
(Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic
Trip Device) or
Library Quick Pick –

Fuse will appear
depending on the
Type of protective
device selected.
Feeder Tab
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Paste the entire content (of the

copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.
Blank out the contents of the entire

selected row.
Summary Page
Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load – Per Phase and Total
Connected Load – Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Code Demand – Per Phase and Total
Output Report
Panel Code Factors
The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done

for each types of load separately and then summed up

Short-Circuit Analysis IEC Standard

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Short-Circuit Analysis

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

 Estándar de ANSI/IEEE & IEC.

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 2

– Verify protective device interrupting capability

– Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

– I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)

– Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 3

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 4

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 6

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 7

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 8

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 9

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 10

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 11

• Peak Short-Circuit Current (ip)

• Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current

• Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (Ik)

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 12

• Equivalent V is based bus nominal kV and c

• XFMR and machine Z adjusted based on

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 13

• KS,KSO – Unit XFMR for faults on system side

• KT,S,KT,SO – Unit XFMR for faults in auxiliary

• K=1 – Unit XFMR for faults between Gen &

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 14

• KS,KSO – With unit XFMR for faults on system

• KG,S,KG,SO – With unit XFMR for faults in

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 15

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 17

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 18

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 19

• μ – calc ib for near-to-gen & not meshed network

• q – calc induction machine ib for near-to-gen & not

• Equation (75) of Std 60909-0, adjusting Ik for

• λmin & λmax – calc ik

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 20

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 21

When these options

• Minimum impedance is used (all negative

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 22

When this option is

• Maximum impedance is used (all positive

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 23

• Required to account for:

• Variations due to time & place

• Static loads & capacitances

• Generator & motor subtransient behavior

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 25

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 26

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 27

• IEC Short Circuit Mesh Determination

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 28

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 29

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 30

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 31

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 32

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 33

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 34

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 35

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 36

©1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. – Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC Slide 37