SOILS EROSION

Caribbean Studies
SOIL EROSION
The unwanted removal of topsoil
from the land or soil particles from
one area to another leading to
negative environmental and socio-
economic consequences. This is due
to several factors but the chief
cause is mans misuse of the land.
Types of Erosion
Sheet erosion, which is the removal of uniform layer of soil by moving
water. It is most common in sloping fields where water caused tiny-
particles to move downwards
 Types of soil Erosion
Gully erosion, which is the removal of soil by the action of water
especially in steep areas where the water creates gullies/channels
Types of soil Erosion

Wind erosion- this is the removal of loose soil through the

process of deflation. This occurs in areas where the land is
bare and dry resulting in particles becoming loosened and
therefore is susceptible to the force of the wind.
PROCESSES OF EROSION
GRAVITY: Caused by mass wasting processes
such as landslides and soil creep
downslope.
WIND: Loose particles are dislodged and carried in the air
being suspended.
WATER: Particles are dislodged and carried away by moving
surface water.
Stream-bank & Tunnel
ICE: Moving glaciers can scrape valley surfaces removing top
soil.
SHORELINE: Waves; tides and sea-level changes can
redistribute soil particles.
ANTHROPOGENIC: Man through his activities
can remove soil particles eg. excavating.
CAUSES
Natural Factors

heavy rains on weak soil: rain drops loosen soil particles and water
transports them down hill.
vegetation depleted by drought: rain drops are free to hit the soil,
causing erosion during rainfall. Winds blow away the fine particles
during droughts.
steep slopes: gravity 'pulls harder': water flows faster; soil creeps,
slips or slumps downhill.
sudden climate change
rainfall: erosion increases unexpectedly rapidly as rainstorms become
more severe.
drought: water dries up and the soil becomes a play ball of winds.
Soil biota die. A sudden rain causes enormous damage.
Human-induced Factors

change of land (deforestation): removal of vegetation from forested hill

slopes for lumbering and cultivation which results in sheet and gully
erosion- the land loses its cover, then its soil biota, porosity and
moisture. E.g. in Haiti, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago.

intensive farming: the plough, excessive fertilizers and irrigation

damage the land, often permanently and this often results in soil erosion

housing development: soil is bared; massive earthworks to landscape

the subdivision; soil is on the loose. This left the soil open to wind and
water erosion

road construction: roads are cut; massive earthworks, leaving scars

behind. Not enough attention paid to rainwater flow and maintenance of
road sides.
 Deforestation : removal of vegetation from forested hill slopes for
lumbering, to make way for agricultural or settlement activity. Once the
vegetation are removed and no quick replacement implemented, soil
erosion takes place.
Human-induced Factors
Overcropping as well as monocropping:
this leads to soil deterioration as minerals
and organic matter are depleted, e.g.
hillsides in Jamaica, Grenada and St.
Vincent.

Cultivation along slopes: this results in

gully erosion taking place, e.g. in Tobago,
Christiana area in Jamaica & Scotland
District in Barbados
 Cultivation along steep slopes: this results in gully erosion taking place
Human-induced Factors
overgrazing by livestock: animals crop the grass
to a low level thus leaving soil bare and open to
wind action. E.g. in South Eastern Monsterrat,
Rupununi in Guyana, and north eastern
Barbados
Mining: open cast/pit method causes soil to be
exposed thus making it susceptible to wind and
water erosion
Some Causes of Soil Erosion
Overgrazing by livestock: animals crop the grass to a low level thus
leaving soil bare and open to wind action
SOIL CONSERVATION

The process whereby measures are adopted

or implemented to prevent soil erosion.
These measures can be:

1. Engineering: Altering the gradient of the

land.

2. Agronomic: Incorporating good farming

practices and vegetation.

3. Policy: Laws and regulations.

Soil Conservation
To achieve this there has to be proper management of the
land, better farming techniques and a gradual return to
permanent grass or forest.
Terracing :flat step like structure cut on steep slopes. This reduces rate of
run off. In addition earth banks, spillways and drainage channels may be
employed
TERRACING

Cutting the slope into steps so as to break the flow of

run-off.
 GABION BASKETS
Using boulder-filled wire baskets to support unstable
stream banks and slopes.
RIP-RAP
Using loose boulders to protect the shoreline
by wave/tidal impacts. The boulder helps
to dissipate energy.
CONTOUR PLOUGHING
Using ploughs along the contours or
hill slope rather than up-down or
vertical. The former breaks the flow
of run-off whilst the latter produces
rills to increase run-off.
 NO-TILL FARMING
Also known as conservation tillage, is a way of growing crops
from year to year without disturbing the soil through tillage.

In no-till farming the soil is left intact and crop residues are
left in the fields. Variations of the conservation tillage
method involve some working of the soil with attention paid
to keeping soil compaction and carbon loss at a minimum.
These variations include reduced tillage, in which small
strips may be plowed to allow space for planting seeds.
Other terms, such as incomplete tillage and minimal tillage
may be used.
STRIP FARMING
Strip farming is a method of farming used
when a slope is too steep or too long, or
when other types of farming may not
prevent soil erosion. Strip farming
alternates strips of closely sown crops such
as hay, wheat, or other small grains with
strips of row crops, such as corn, soybeans,
cotton, or sugar beets. It is also known as
strip cropping.
 Strip cropping: crops are grown close together in strips to ensure soil
cover
WIND BREAKS

A windbreak, or shelterbelt, is usually

made up of one or more rows of trees
planted in such a manner as to provide
shelter from the wind and to prevent soil
erosion. They are commonly planted
around the edges of fields on farms.
 Windbreaks and shelter belts: trees planted in a line along the path of
the wind. This checks wind speed and force. Crop are protected from the
forces of the wind with this.
Afforestation and reforestation

This is the planting and replanting of trees

respectively which acts as protection for soil from
heavy downpours, roots absorb excess water and
bind soil particles together
Controlled Grazing

This is zero grazing policy or paddocks where

animals are fed in stalls and are not allow to
graze on the land thus preventing destruction of
vegetation and topsoil.
Impact Of soil Erosion
1. Low yields in agriculture

2. Reduction in foreign exchange

earnings

3. Increase in import bills to satisfy

food supply

4. Increased negative balance of

trade

5. Silting up of rivers
DROUGHTS

A drought occurs when the average

amount of precipitation for a region
drops far below the normal amount
resulting in adverse environmental
and socio-economic effects.
CARIBBEAN 1973 and mid 80s

Bush fires eg. Approx. 50% of the Valencia/Matura

forest reserve was destroyed. Loss of biota.

Pipe-borne water supply is disrupted. NWC had to

regulate the normal supply.

Agricultural production decreased. Dairy industry

affected by heat-stress and poor quality pastures.
Farmers could not irrigate plots.

Industries suffered because of lack of water for

cooling turbines etc.

Human resource affected leading to a loss in

productivity (discomfort; associated diseases etc.)
HURRICANES
 What is a hurricane?

A hurricane is a low pressure tropical storm. A

hurricane is also an intense, rotating oceanic weather
system. Hurricanes can have very strong winds up to
60mph.Hurricanes can also have a lot of rain. H few
days Hurricanes can last from a few days or a few
hours. Hurricanes can also hit one town to another.
Hurricanes are also very harmful.
hurricane formation
form at 15 to 20o N or S of equator not at
equator (Coriolis too weak)
must have warm water and humid air to form
low pressure

cells (tropical
depressions)
strengthen and
speed up
How hurricanes form

Step 1

A low pressure will form over a

high which is over the sea.
Step 2

The water vapor rises carrying the

warm air into the air pressure.
Step 3

As the water rises it

condenses into water
droplets.
Step 4

Condensation releases heat

into the atmosphere and
makes the air lighter.
Step 5 The air
continues to
rise with moist
air from the
ocean creating
extreme winds.
 hurricane strength
tropical depression winds < 38 mi/hr
tropical storm winds between 39 and
73 mi/hr
hurricane winds > 74 mi/hr
HURRICANES
IMPACTS
SOCIAL
The power of Ivan, lost homes and possessions caused emotional trauma and shock. Counseling

had to be provided.

39 killed

Looting created further disruption and prisoners escaped causing a breakdown in law and order. A

state of emergency was declared with curfew.

80-90% of houses were damaged or destroyed and up to 8,000 had to sleep in shelters.

There was loss of electricity and limited supply of potable water. Water was also contaminated.

Most landline telephones were put out of service and radio transmitters were blown down.

Roads were blocked and the airport partially destroyed and closed down.

The recently built national stadium was damaged.

ECONOMIC

Estimated
damage put at US$ 815 million or 200% of GDP.

Tourism
sector affected. Out of 1,700 hotel rooms, only
three remained in service. Cruise ship port damaged.

Nutmegs,
the main farm export had 90% of the
plantations destroyed.

Tax
revenue was reduced .

Insurance
premiums went up.

In
the US offshore oil platforms were destroyed reducing
outputs in production.
 SOCIAL DISPLACEMENT

This occurs when a population becomes

fragmented or separated during a natural
disaster due to evacuation and migration.

Families are broken-up.

Culture and traditions are lost.

Trauma and emotional stress occurs.

Refugees have difficulty settling in new

territory (jobs; new cultures etc)
CORAL REEFS
Corals Overview

Coral reefsare underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted

by coral polyps.

Although coral is often mistaken for a rock or a plant, it is actually composed

of tiny, fragile animals calledcoral polyps. When people saycoral, they are
referring to these little animals and the skeletons they leave behind after
they die.

Corals need sunlight, clear water, warm water temperature, clean water and
salt water to survive.
Types of Corals: Fringing Reefs

These grow near the coastline around islands and continents. They are
separated from the shore by narrow, shallow lagoons. Fringing reefs are the
most common type of coral reefs.
FRINGING REEF

FRINGING REEF:BUCCOO REEF TOBAGO.

Types of Corals: Atoll

Atolls are rings of coral that create protected lagoons and are usually located
in the middle of the sea.

Atolls usually form when islands surrounded by fringing reefs sink into the sea
or the sea level rises around them (these islands are often the tops of
underwater volcanoes).
Types of Coral: Barrier Reef

Barrier reefsalso parallel the coastline but are separated by deeper, wider
lagoons. At their shallowest point they can reach the water's surface forming
a "barrier" to navigation.

The Great Barrier Reef in Australia is the largest and most famous barrier reef
in the world.

The Belize Barrier reef is the largest reef in the northern hemisphere.
BARRIER REEF: BELIZE; BAHAMAS
BENEFITS
PROTECT COASTLINE: A well-developed fringing

reef is a self-constructed, self-repairing

breakwater, which protects the coastline and

beaches from erosion. Waves loose much of their

erosive power when they break on the reef. Also,

much of the sand like on west coast Barbados, is

derived from corals which helps to protect the

coastline.

SCIENCE & RESEARCH

BENEFITS
FISHING INDUSTRY: Coral reefs provide a

habitat for marine life, including fish and

shellfish. Species such as conch and

lobster are important resources for the

fishing and associated tourism industry.

RECREATION & TOURISM: Photography;

scuba diving; snorkeling etc.

HERITAGE: Buccoo reef, Tobago part of

the islands pride.

 Coral reefs are a habitat for many marine organisms and also increases
biodiversity. The variety of species living on coral reefs is greater than
almost anywhere else in the world.
 Threats to Corals
Coral bleaching as a result of climate
change (global warming): Global warming
is caused by the accumulation of carbon
dioxide and other heat-trapping gasses in
the atmosphere. These gases act as a
blanket, preventing the heat of the sun to
escape through our atmosphere. Coral
reefs expels coral polyps from the corals
when water temperature rises above 20C
so the corals appear bleached and the
corals eventually die.
 Rising sea levels: As a result of the excess heat due to climate
change ice caps in polar regions melt causing sea levels to rise. This
rise in sea level makes the coral reefs unable to photosynthesize as
light cannot travel far in deep waters and they die. Also a rise in sea
level may decrease the temperature of the water causing the coral
polyps to die

Excess Carbon Dioxide: when excess Carbon dioxide enter the

ocean two things can occur

1. Carbon dioxide will suffocate the coral polyps in the ocean

2. Carbon dioxide will acidify the waters thereby inhibiting the

ability of the coral polyps to secrete calcium carbonate to
make up its skeleton
 Water Pollution: oil, gas and pesticide contamination poisons
coral and marine life. Reefs are harmed when human, animal
waste and/or fertilizer is dumped into the ocean or when river
systems carry these pollutants to reef waters. These pollutants
increase the level of nitrogen around coral reefs, causing an
overgrowth of algae, which smothers reefs by cutting off their
sunlight. Plastic bags may also smother coral reefs.

Sedimentation: particles end up in the ocean and cover coral

reefs. This 'smothers' coral and deprives it of the light it needs to
survive
 Destructive Fishing Practices: Overfishing is another leading
cause for coral reef degradation. Often, too many fish are taken
from one reef to sustain a population in that area. Poor fishing
practices, such as banging on the reef with sticks, destroy coral
formations that normally function as fish habitat. In some
instances, people fish with explosives (blast fishing), which blast
apart the surrounding coral.

Coral Mining: Sometimes coral pieces are removed for use as

bricks or road-fill. Or, sand and limestone from coral reefs are
made into cement for new buildings.
 Careless Tourism: Tourist resorts that empty their
sewage directly into the water surrounding coral reefs
contribute to coral reef degradation. Wastes kept in
poorly maintained septic tanks can also leak into
surrounding ground water, eventually seeping out to the
reefs. Careless boating, diving, snorkeling and fishing
can also damage coral reefs. Whenever people grab,
kick, walk on, or stir up sediment in the reefs, they
contribute to coral reef destruction. Corals are also
harmed or killed when people drop anchors on them or
when people collect coral.
THE END