Unit I

INTRODUCTION & BASICS

 Antenna
An antenna is a region of transition
between a transmission line and space.
Antennas
radiate/couple/concentrate/direct
electromagnetic (EM) energy in the
desired direction.
A radio antenna may be defined as the
structure associated with the region of
transition between a guided wave & a free
space wave, or vice versa.
Basic equation of radiation

IL Qv (A m / s)
where
: time-varying current, A/s
L: length of current element, m
Q: charge, C
v : acceleration of charge, m/sq. s

Radiation is produced by time-changing

current & accelerated charges.
 Basic Antenna Parameters
Radiation patterns
They are 3-dimensional (3-D) quantities involving
variation of field or power as a function of spherical
coordinates & .
It determines the distribution of radiated energy in
space.
To represent radiation pattern on plain paper (in 2-D), a
cross-section through middle of 3-D pattern is taken. It
are called principal plane pattern.
Power pattern P(,) is proportional to square of the
field strength pattern E(,).
 Pattern parameters
Main beam or main lobe: It is the lobe containing the
maximum radiation.
Minor lobes: They are all the lobes except the major
lobes. They are formed of side & back lobes.
i. Side lobe: It is the lobe that is in the hemisphere in
the direction of the main lobe.
ii. Back lobe: It is the lobe in the opposite (back)
hemisphere of the main lobe.
. Nulls: Places between lobes where the field goes to zero.
. Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) or -3 dB
beamwidth : It is the angular beamwidth at the half-
power level or at the level where field drops to 70.7 %.
. Beamwidth between first nulls (FNBW or BWFN): It
is the angular beamwidth between the first nulls on both
the sides of the main lobe.
 Normalized or relative field pattern: It is obtained by
dividing a field component by its maximum value.

E ( , )
E ( , ) n (dimensionless)
E ( , ) max

Normalized power pattern: It is ratio of Poynting vector

(power per unit area) S(, ) to its maximum value.

S ( , )
Pn ( , ) n (dimensionless)
S ( , ) max

where, S ( , ) [ E
2
( , ) E ( , )] / Z 0
2
(W/sq. m)

In dB, dB 10 log10 Pn ( , )

maximum values of normalized field or power patterns are u

Radiation Patterns
Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle) A
The beam area or beam solid angle (A) of an
antenna is given by the integral of the normalized
power pattern over a sphere (4 sr).

2
A Pn ( , ) sin dd
0 0

also
A P ( , )d
n (sr)
4

where d sin dd (sr)

Also, A HPHP (sr)

HP ,HPBWs
HP : in two principal planes, neglecting minor lob
BW or HP : Elevation beamwidth

BW or HP : Azimuth beamwidth
 Radiation Intensity (U)
It is the power radiated from an antenna per
unit solid angle.
P
U ( , ) (W/sr or W/sq.deg)
4

t is related to normalized power pattern as

U ( , ) S ( , )
Pn ( , ) (dimensionless)
U ( , ) max S ( , ) max

is independent of the distance from the antenna.

 Beam Efficiency (M)
The total beam area A (or beam solid angle) consists
of the main beam area M plus the minor-lobe area
m.
A M m
The ratio of the main beam area (M) to the total beam
area (A) is called the (main) beam efficiency M.

M
M (dimensionless)
A
The ratio of the minor-lobe area (m) to the total
beam area (A) is called the stray factor m.
m
m (dimensionless)
A
From above relations, M m 1
 Directivity (D)
The directivity of an antenna is the ratio of
the maximum power density P(,)max to its
average value over a sphere as observed in
the far field of an antenna.
P ( , ) max
D
P ( , ) av

It is a dimensionless ratio 1.
The average power density over a sphere is given by

2
1
P ( , ) av
4 P( , ) sin dd
0 0
 1
or P( , ) av
4 P( , )d
4

So, the directivity

P ( , ) max 1
D
(1 / 4 ) P( , )d (1 / 4 ) [ P ( , ) / P( , ) max ]d
4 4

4 4 ( sr )
D
or
Pn ( , )d A (sr )
4
 The smaller the beam area A, the larger the
directivity D.
In decibels, D(dB ) 10 log10 D

he numerical value of D always lies between 1 and

The idealized isotropic antenna radiates equally

in all the directions, so its beam area A = 4 sr.
Its directivity is
4 4
D 1 (= 0 dB)
A 4

his is the lowest possible directivity (D = 1).

actual antennas have directivities greater than 1 (D
Also, A HPHP
as

hence 4 4 41,253(deg 2 )
D
, A HP HP HP

HP

Approximately,
40,000(deg 2 )
D
HPHP

 Gain (G)
It is an actual or realized quantity which is
less than the directivity due to ohmic losses
in the antenna.

Gain is related to directivity with antenna

efficiency factor asG kD

r : antenna efficiency factor (0 k 1), dimension

GD
f k or = 1, i.e. for a lossless antenna,

practice, gain is always less than the directivity D.

 Gain can be of following types:
1. Power Gain (Gp)
2. Directive Gain (Gd)
1. Power Gain (Gp): It is the ratio of
radiation intensity in a given direction to the
average total input
U ( , power.
) 4U ( , )
Gp
PT PT
4

Total input power PT = Pr + Pl

Pr: Radiated power
Pl : Ohmic losses in antenna
 2. Directive Gain (Gd): It is the ratio of
radiation intensity in a particular direction to
the average radiated power.
U ( , ) 4U ( , )
Gd
Pr Pr
4

Gd does not depend upon the power input to

the antenna & its ohmic losses .
The maximum value of directive gain is
the directivity D of the antenna.
Also, G p Gd

: Efficiency factor which lies between 0 to 1

 Directivity and Resolution
The resolution of an antenna may be defined as
equal to half the beamwidth between first nulls.

FNBW
Antenna Resolution
2
alf the beamwidth between first nulls is approximate
qual to the half power beamwidth (HPBW). So,
FNBW
HPBW
2
Hence, product of FNBW/2 in the two principal planes
ntenna pattern is the beam area. Thus,
FNBW FNBW
A
2 2
Directivity and Resolution (contd.)
The number N of radio transmitters or point
sources of radiation distributed uniformly
over the sky which an antenna can resolve is
4
N
A
4
As, D hence, D N
A

So, ideally, the number point sources of radiation

an antenna can resolve is numerically equal to
the directivity of the antenna.
Radiation Resistance (Rr)
From circuit point of view, the antennas
appear to the transmission lines as a
resistance Rr called the radiation resistance.
It is a virtual resistance that does not exist physically
but is a quantity coupling the antenna to distant
regions of space via a virtual transmission line.

It is the fictitious resistance which when substituted

in series with an antenna will consume the same
power as is actually radiated by the antenna.
Antenna Aperture
In an antenna, it concerns with the area utilized
for reception or radiation of EM waves.
Receiving case: Consider a rectangular horn
as receiving
antenna placed in the field of a uniform plane
wave.

Let power density of plane wave be S

watts/m2.
2
Total power P absorbed from the wave by the
horn over its entire physical aperture is
E.EAp E 2 Ap
P SAp E.HAp (Watts)
Z Z
E E
as, S E H and Z or H
H Z
So, total power the horn extracts from passing
wave is proportional to the aperture or area of
its mouth (Ap).
But, the field response of the horn is not
uniform across the aperture Ap as field E at
the sidewalls must be zero.
So, the effective aperture Ae of horn is less
than the physical aperture Ap.
 The ratio of effective aperture Ae to the physical
aperture Ap is called aperture efficiency ap.

Ae
ap (dimensionless)
Ap

ap can have values from 0 to .

Effective Aperture or Effective

Area or Capture Area (Ae)
It is defined as the ratio of power received at the
antenna load terminal to the Poynting vector or
power density in watts/m2 of the incident wave.
P
Ae (m2)
S
diating case: Consider an antenna with Ae radiatin
ts power in a conical pattern of beam area A.

Assuming a uniform field Ea over the

aperture, power
radiated is E2
P a
Ae (Watts)
Z0
Assuming a uniform field Er in the far field at a distance
r, power radiated is also given by
Er2 2
P r A (Watts)
Z0
Equating both powers, we get
Ea2 Er2 2
Ae r A or Ea2 Ae Er2 r 2 A
Z0 Z0

Using the relation Er = Ea Ae / r, we get aperture-beam

area relation
2 Ae A (m2)

4 4Ae
as, D so, we get from last equation, D 2
A
 Effective Height (he) or Effective Length(le)

Receiving antenna: Effective height can be

defined in terms of induced voltage V and
incident field E.
Voltage V induced in a receiving antenna is the
product of its effective height he (meters) & the
incident field E (V/m) of the same polarization.
V he E (volts)

o, effective height may be defined as the ratio of the

duced voltage to the incident field.
Induced voltage
Effective height
Incident Electric field strength
V
or he (m)
E
Transmitting antenna: In this case, effective
height equals the physical height hp (or length l)
multiplied by the (normalized) average current Iav.
hp
1
he
I0 I ( z )dz
0

I av
or he hp (m)
I0

Effective height is used for transmitting

tower type antennas & small antennas.
Relation between Effective
aperture & Effective height
For an antenna of radiation resistance Rr matched
to its load, power delivered to the load is
2
V 2 he E 2
P (Watts)
4 Rr 4 Rr
The same power, in terms of effective aperture Ae is

E 2 Ae
P SAe (Watts)
Z0
where Z0: intrinsic impedance of free space (= 377 )

Equating both powers, being same, we get

 2
he E 2 E 2 Ae

4 Rr Z0
on solving,

Rr Ae he2 Z 0
he 2 (m) and Ae (m2)
Z0 4 Rr

So, effective height & effective aperture are

related via radiation resistance & intrinsic
impedance of free space.
The Radio Communication Link
(Friis Transmission formula)
This formula gives the power received over a
radio communication link.

Assuming transmitting antenna as isotropic, the

power per unit area available at receiving antenna is
Pt
Sr
4r 2
If Tx antenna has gain Gt the power per unit area
available at receiving antenna will be increased in
proportion as given by
Pt Gt
Sr
4r 2
The power collected by lossless, matched
receiving antenna of effective aperture Aer is
Pt Gt Aer
Pr S r Aer
4r 2
4Aet using in above relation gives,
As, Gt
2
Pr Aer Aet
2 2 (dimensionless)
Pt r
Aer Aet
or Pr Pt 2 2 (Watts)
r
 Antenna efficiency ()
It is the ratio of the total power radiated by the
antenna to the total power fed to the antenna.

Pr
(dimensionless)
PT
Total input power PT = Pr + Pl
Pr: Total radiated power
Pl : Power losses in antenna
Antenna efficiency can have values from 0
to 1 or from 0% to 100%.
Powers can be expressed in terms of rms currents. So,
2
I rms Rr Rr
2
I rms RT RT

Rr Rr
or (dimensionless)
RT Rr Rl

Rr: Radiation resistance,

RT: Antenna total resistance (RT = Rr + Rl),
Rl: Antenna loss resistance,
Hence, summarizing for efficiency,
G G p Pr Rr Rr
(dimensionless)
D Gd PT RT Rr Rl
Front-to-back ratio (FBR)
It is the ratio of power radiated in the front (desired)
direction through the main lobe to the power radiated
in the back (opposite) direction through the back lobes.

Power radiated in desired direction

FBR
Power radiated in opposite direction

Antenna bandwidth
It is the range of frequency over which an antenna
maintains its certain required characteristics, like
gain, radiation resistance, polarization, front to
back ratio, SWR, impedance etc.

Bandwidth, 2 1
Single-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
It is a measure of detection capability of a system
for a signal.
Let a network be given an input electrical signal
possessing certain characteristics.
If this signal emerges out of the network (at
output port) with some changes in these
characteristics (like variation in magnitude &
phase), it is presumed that these variations can be
due to addition or subtraction of an unwanted
signal (called noise), introduced by the network
itself.
The ratio of the signal S, fed to the network, and
the noise N is termed as single-to-noise ratio
(SNR).
 S
SNR
N

If the input signal is already mixed with some

noise (i.e. = Si + Ni), the output obtained is further
modified by the network (i.e. output = So + No).

So, a new parameter called Noise Figure F can

be defined as
Si
Ni
F
So
No
Antenna Temperature (TA)
The noise temperature TA of a lossless antenna
is equal to the sky temperature Ts and not the
physical temperature of antenna.
For a radio-telescope antenna, the noise power
per unit bandwidth is given by

p kTA (W/Hz)

TA is also the temperature of the antennas radiation

resistance, determined by the sky temperature at
which the antenna beam is directed.

Multiplying above equation by bandwidth B,

we obtain total power available as
 P kTA B (W)

Received noise power per unit bandwidth is

also expressed in terms of flux density S as
p kTA
S (W m-2 Hz-1)
Ae Ae

SAe
or TA (K)
k