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Philosophy
Introduction to Philosophy
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Arguments
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Thinking Critically
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Two kinds of argument
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But lets be more specific
A statement is any unambiguous declarative sentence
about a fact (or non-fact) about the world.
It says that something is (or isnt) the case.
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Examples
All people are mortal. Socrates is a person.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Sound
All people are mortal. My dog is mortal. Therefore,
my dog is a person.
Invalid.
Oranges are green. All green things make me sick.
Therefore, oranges make me sick.
Valid. Not sound.
Whales know how to play hockey. Therefore,
Canadians like winter.
Invalid.
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Notice
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Evaluating Deductive
Arguments
Good arguments must be sound.
If you want to accept of an argument, you would
have to show both validity and soundness
Bad arguments can be bad in two ways:
Invalid
You can show that the conclusion does not follow from
the premises
Unsound
You can show that at least one premise is unacceptable
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Inductive Arguments
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Inductive Arguments
An inductive argument is:
STRONG if its premises make the conclusion
probable
That is, if you were to accept the premises as true, then
you would have to accept that the conclusion was probably
true
COGENT if it is strong and its premises are
accepted
A good, convincing argument is cogent.
STRENGTH + TRUE PREMISES* = COGENT
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Examples
This cooler contains 30 cans. 25 cans selected at
random contained soda. Therefore, all the cans
probably contain soda.
Cogent
This cooler contains 30 cans. 3 cans selected at
random contained soda. Therefore, all the cans
probably contain soda.
Weak
Every monkey Ive seen (over 500) has blue teeth.
Therefore, the next monkey I see will probably have
blue teeth.
Strong, but not cogent
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Notice
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Evaluating Inductive
Arguments
Good arguments must be cogent.
If you want to accept of an argument, you would
have to show both strength and cogency
Bad arguments can be bad in two ways:
Weak
You can show that the premises does not make the
conclusion more probable
Not cogent
You can show that at least one premise is unacceptable
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Argument by Analogy
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In Practice
Identify the conclusion
What is the claim?
Identify the premises
How is the claim supported?
Often, we first have to get rid of anything unnecessary
mere rhetorical flourishes, repetitions, and irrelevancies.
Reformulate the argument
Try to put it into standard form
Often, well have to add premises that are implied but not
stated.
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In Practice
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Example
For Death is to be as it were nothing, and to be
deprived of all sensation... And if no sensation
remains, then death is like a dreamless sleep. In
this case, death will be a blessing. For, if any one
compares such a night as this, in which he so
profoundly sleeps as not even to see a dream, with
the other nights and days of his life, and should
declare how many he had passed better and more
pleasantly than this night, I think that not only a
private man, but even the great king himself, would
find so small a number that they might be easily
counted.
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Example
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Example
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Example
Death is to be deprived of all sensation.
If no sensation remains, death is like a dreamless
sleep.
Death is like a dreamless sleep.
Anyone will consider a dreamless sleep better than
most days and nights.
Anyone will consider death better than most days
and nights.
Anything that is better than most days and nights is
a blessing.
---
Death is a blessing.
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Example
Death is to be deprived of all sensation. (Assumption)
If no sensation remains, death is like a dreamless sleep.
(Assumption)
Death is like a dreamless sleep. (Conclusion from 1 and 2)
Anyone will consider a dreamless sleep better than most days
and nights. (Assumption)
Anyone will consider death better than most days and nights.
(Conclusion from 3 and 4)
Anything that is better than most days and nights is a blessing.
(Assumption)
---
Death is a blessing. (From 3, 5, and 6)
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