7.

Channel Models
Signal Losses due to three Effects:

2. Medium Scale
Fading: due to
shadowing and
3. Small Scale
obstacles
Fading: due to
multipath

1. Large Scale
Fading: due to
distance
 Wireless Channel
Frequencies of Interest: in the UHF (.3GHz 3GHz) and SHF (3GHz 30 GHz)
bands;
Several Effects:
Path Loss due to dissipation of energy: it depends on distance only
Shadowing due to obstacles such as buildings, trees, walls. Is caused by
absorption, reflection, scattering
Self-Interference due to Multipath.

Prec
10 log 10
Ptransm

log 10 distance
 1.1. Large Scale Fading: Free Space
Path Loss due to Free Space Propagation:

For isotropic antennas:

Transmit

2

Prec
antenna
Receive Ptransm
d antenna 4 d
c
wavelength
F

Path Loss in dB:

Ptransm
L 10log10 20log10 ( F ( MHz )) 20log10 (d (km)) 32.45
Prec
2. Medium Scale Fading: Losses due to Buildings, Trees,
Hills, Walls

The Power Loss in dB is random:

L p E L p
expected value

random, zero mean

approximately gaussian with
6 12 dB
 Average Loss
Free space loss at reference
distance

d
E{Lp } 10 log 10 L0 dB
d0
Reference distance
Path loss indoor 1-10m
exponent
outdoor 10-100m

E L p L0 10 Values for Exponent :

20dB Free Space 2

Urban 2.7-3.5
102 101 100 10 Indoors (LOS) 1.6-1.8
log10 (d / d0 )
Indoors(NLOS) 4-6
 Empirical Models for Propagation Losses to Environment

Okumura: urban macrocells 1-100km, frequencies 0.15-1.5GHz,

BS antenna 30-100m high;
Hata: similar to Okumura, but simplified
COST 231: Hata model extended by European study to 2GHz
3. Small Scale Fading due to Multipath.
a. Spreading in Time: different paths have different lengths;

Receive
Transmit
x(t ) (t t0 ) y (t ) hk (t t0 k ) ...

time t0 1 2 3
t0

Example for 100m path difference we have a time delay

100 102
3 sec
1
c 3 108
Typical values channel time spread:

x(t ) (t t0 )

t0 1 2 MAX
t0 channel

Indoor 10 50 n sec
Suburbs 2 101 2 sec
Urban 1 3 sec
Hilly 3-10 sec
b. Spreading in Frequency: motion causes frequency shift (Doppler)

x(t ) X T e j 2 Fct
Transmit Receive
j 2 Fc F t
y(t ) YRe
time

v
for each path time

Doppler Shift

f c Fc F Frequency (Hz)
Put everything together

x(t ) Transmit Receive y (t )

time

time
 w(t )
x(t ) channel
y (t )
gT (t ) Re{.} h(t ) g R (t )
LPF LPF

e j 2FC t e j 2FC t

Each path has attenuation shift in time

y (t ) Re a (t ) x(t )e j 2 ( Fc F )(t )

paths shift in frequency

(this causes small scale time variations)

 2.1 Statistical Models of Fading Channels

Several Reflectors:

x (t )
y (t )
Transmit
t 1

2 t

v

For each path with NO Line Of Sight (NOLOS):

y (t )
average time delay t
v v cos( )

each time delay k

each doppler shift F FD

y (t ) Re ak e j 2 ( Fc F )(t k )
x(t k )
k
 Some mathematical manipulation

j 2 Fct
y (t ) Re ak e j 2F t e j 2 ( Fc F )( k )
x(t k ) e
k




r (t ) ak e j 2F t j 2 ( Fc F ) k
e x(t )
k
Assume: bandwidth of signal << 1 / k
x(t ) x(t k )
leading to this:

y (t ) Re r (t ) e j 2 Fct
r (t ) c (t ) x(t )

with c (t ) ak e j 2F t j 2 ( Fc F ) k
e random, time varying
k
Statistical Model for the time varying coefficients
M
c (t ) a e k
j 2F t j 2 ( Fc F ) k
e
k 1
random
By the CLT c (t ) is gaussian, zero mean, with:

E c (t )c* (t t ) P J 0 (2 FD t )

v v
with FD FC the Doppler frequency shift.
c
Each coefficient c (t ) is complex, gaussian, WSS with autocorrelation

E c (t )c (t t ) P J 0 (2 FD t )
*

and PSD
2 1
F if | F | FD
S ( F ) FT J 0 (2 FD t ) D 1 ( F / FD ) 2
0
otherwise

with FD maximum Doppler frequency.

S (F ) This is called Jakes

spectrum.

FD F
Bottom Line. This:
x(t ) y (t )

time
time
v
1

time N

can be modeled as:

1
c1 (t )

y (t )
x(t )
c (t )
time
time
N
cN ( t )
delays
For each path

c (t ) P c (t )
unit power
time invariant
time varying (from autocorrelation)
from power distribution
Parameters for a Multipath Channel (No Line of Sight):

Time delays: 1 2 L sec

Power Attenuations: P1 P2 PL dB

Doppler Shift: FD Hz

Summary of Channel Model:

y(t ) c (t ) x(t )

c (t ) P c (t )
c (t ) WSS with Jakes PSD
 Non Line of Sight (NOLOS) and Line of Sight (LOS) Fading Channels
1. Rayleigh (No Line of Sight). E{c (t )} 0
Specified by:

Time delays T [ 1 , 2 ,..., N ]

Power distribution P [ P1 , P2 ,..., PN ]

Maximum Doppler FD

2. Ricean (Line of Sight) E{c (t )} 0

Same as Rayleigh, plus Ricean Factor K
K
Power through LOS PLOS PTotal
1 K

1
Power through NOLOS PNOLOS PTotal
1 K
 Simulink Example

M-QAM Modulation

Rayleigh Fading Channel

Bernoulli Rectangular -K-
Binary QAM
Parameters
Transmitter Channel -K-
Bernoulli Binary Rectangular QAM Attenuation
Gain
Generator Modulator
Baseband

Multipath Rayleigh Rayleigh

Fading Channel Fading

-K-
B-FFT
Receiver
Spectrum Gain
Scope

Bit Rate
Set Numerical Values:
velocity
carrier freq.
v
Recall the Doppler Frequency: FD FC
c
3 108 m / sec

Easy to show that: FD Hz v km / h FC GHz

modulation

power

channel
 Channel Parameterization

1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth

2. Flat Fading vs Frequency Selective Fading
3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence
4. Slow Fading vs Fast Fading
 1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth

Try a number of experiments transmitting a narrow pulse p (t ) at different random

times
x(t ) p(t ti )
We obtain a number of received pulses

yi (t ) c (t ) p(t ti ) c (t i ) p (t ti )

t t1
0 1 2
c2 (ti 2 )
transmitted c1 (ti 1 )

c (ti )


t ti
0 1 2

t tN
0 1 2
Take the average received power at time t ti

P1
P2 P P E | c (t ) | 2

0 1 2
More realistically:

Received Power

10

20

RMS time

MEAN
This defines the Coherence Bandwidth.
Take a complex exponential signal x(t ) with frequency F . The response of
the channel is:

y(t ) c (t )e j 2F (t MEAN )

j 2 F (t MEAN )
If | F | RMS 1 then y (t ) c (t ) e

i.e. the attenuation is not frequency dependent

Define the Frequency Coherence Bandwidth as

1
Bc
5 RMS
This means that the frequency response of the channel is flat within
the coherence bandwidth:

Channel Flat up to the

Coherence Bandwidth

1 frequency
Coherence Bandwidth Bc
5 RMS

Flat Fading Just attenuation, no distortion

<
Signal Bandwidth Frequency Coherence
>
Frequency Selective
Distortion!!!
Fading
Example: Flat Fading

Channel : Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec

Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB
Symbol Rate Fs=10kHz
Doppler Fd=0.1Hz
Modulation QPSK

Very low Inter Symbol

Interference (ISI)

Spectrum: fairly uniform

Example: Frequency Selective Fading

Channel : Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec

Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB
Symbol Rate Fs=1MHz
Doppler Fd=0.1Hz
Modulation QPSK

Very high ISI

Spectrum with deep

variations
 3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence

Back to the experiment of sending pulses. Take autocorrelations:

t t1
0 1 2
c2 (ti 2 )
transmitted c1 (ti 1 )

c (ti )


t ti
0 1 2

t tN
0 1 2

R2 (t ) Where:
R (t )
1
R (t )

R (t ) E c (t )c* (t t )
Take the FT of each one:
S (F )

FD F

This shows how the multipath characteristics c (t ) change with time.

It defines the Time Coherence:

9
TC
16 FD

Within the Time Coherence the channel can be considered Time Invariant.
 Summary of Time/Frequency spread of the channel

Frequency Spread S (t , F )
Time
F
Coherence
FD
9
TC t Time Spread
16 FD mean
RMS

Frequency
Coherence

1
Bc
5 RMS
 Stanford University Interim (SUI) Channel Models

Extension of Work done at AT&T Wireless and Erceg etal.

Three terrain types:

Category A: Hilly/Moderate to Heavy Tree density;
Category B: Hilly/ Light Tree density or Flat/Moderate to Heavy Tree density
Category C: Flat/Light Tree density

Six different Scenarios (SUI-1 SUI-6).

Found in

IEEE 802.16.3c-01/29r4, Channel Models for Wireless Applications,

http://wirelessman.org/tg3/contrib/802163c-01_29r4.pdf
V. Erceg etal, An Empirical Based Path Loss Model for Wireless
Channels in Suburban Environments, IEEE Selected Areas in
Communications, Vol 17, no 7, July 1999