Course Objectives

Introduce the concepts and definitions

of formation pressure evaluation
Present the causes of formation
pressure development
Present pressure evaluation techniques
Study cases of abnormally pressured
wells
Outline basic well control techniques
Limitations of Overpressure Detection Techniques

Pressures are calculated for shales only

Sand pressures are based primarily on
overlying shales and assume that sand is not
faulted at the top and is not unconformable
to the shales
No theory could account for any
supercharging or pressure release in the
sands caused by structural deformations or
depositional unconformities
Reasons for Studying Overpressures
Increased drilling costs
Kicks and blowouts
Stuck pipe
Lost Circulation
Environmental pollution
Loss of reserves
Loss of life or injuries to personnel
Areas of Overpressure
Tertiary:
South China Sea (up to 18.5+ ppg or 2.22 sg)
Niger Delta (up to 16 ppg or 1.92 sg)
Cretaceous:
Maracaibo Basin (up to 19.5 ppg or 2.34 sg)
Bass Strait (up to 16 ppg or 1.92 sg)
Jurassic:
Saudi Arabia (up to 20 ppg or 2.4 sg)
Mississippi Delta (up to 19.8 ppg or 2.37 sg)
Formation Pressure Concepts
Formation Pressure Concepts

Hydrostatic Pressure
Overburden Pressure
Formation Pressure
Formation Balance Gradient
Equivalent Circulating Density
Formation Fracture Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted
by the weight of a static column of fluid that is
independent of the dimension and geometry
of the fluid column.
It is exerted equally in all directions
Formula used is:
Ph (psi) = 0.0519 x MW (ppg) x TVD (ft)
(Imperial)
Ph (Kpa) = 0.098 x MW (kg/m3) x TVD (m) (Metric)
Ph (Kg/cm2) = (MW (g/cc) x TVD (m))/10 (Metric)
Overburden Pressure
Overburden Pressure is the pressure
exerted by the total weight of the
overlying formation.
It is a function of the height of the rock
column and the bulk density of the rock
Bulk Density, b, is the combined
weight of formation matrix and the pore
fluids of a rock.
Bulk Density Porosity
Bulk Density
Bulk densities maybe obtained from:
E-logs (NMR, Density, Sonic)
Sonic: b = x f + (1 ) x m
Where, = porosity; f (fluid density) and m
(rock matrix density) in g/cc
Cuttings/shale density measurement
Some mathematical drilling models
Overburden Pressure: Formula
First step in the quantitative analysis of pore
pressures.
Formula:
Sp (OBP) = 0.433 x (b x D) (Imperial)
Sp (OBP kg/cm2) = (b x D)/10 (Metric)
Sg (OBG) = OBP / D
0.433 is the conversion constant: (Ave OBG
in a thick sed sequence/ave. density) ->
1 psi/ft/2.31 g/cc
Formation Pressure
Formation pressure is the pressure of
the fluid contained in the pore spaces of
the sediments
Also called pore pressure
3 categories:
Normal hydrostatic
Subnormal
Overpressure
Normal Pressure

Pore pressure = Hydrostatic pressure

Hp(psi) = 0.0519 x W(ppg) x TVD(ft)
Since water density is a function of
salinity, the average normal pressure
range is 1.0 to 1.08 sg (8.33 to 9.0
ppg)
Subnormal Pressure
Pressure below hydrostatic or normal pressure;
also called subnormal pressure or
underpressure
Occurrences:
Areas where water table is low (arid and mountainous
areas)
Aquifer or reservoir with an outcrop below the water
table (mountainous areas)
Reduction of average fluid density due to thick gas
column (rare)
Result in lost circulation -> blowout if not
controlled
Overpressure

Pressure in excess of hydrostatic

pressure, and usually limited by the
overburden pressure
Formation Pore Pressure Gradient

Formation pore pressure gradient is pressure

of the formation at a given depth divided by
the height of the fluid column at that depth
PPgrad (psi/ft) = pore press (psi) / TVD (ft)
A Note On Gradients
All gradients should be referenced to
the flowline which is 5-10 ft below the
RKB or RT not the RKB or RT.
Formation and Overburden Pressure Relationship

OBP = pore pressure + matrix confining

stress (vertical component, 1)
Matrix stress is the pressure
distribution through the rock. The values
greatly influence the resistance of the
rock to fracturing.
Formation Balance Gradient (FBG)
Pressure per unit depth as measured from
the flowline. It is always less than the Pore
Pressure Gradient but is exactly equal to the
static mud density required in the borehole to
balance the formation pore pressure.
Used interchangeably with Equivalent Mud
Density.
Expressed as a mud density (ex: 12 ppg
EMW or EMD)
Pore Pressure and FBG

Pore pressure is measured from either

the water table or sea level
FBG, like all gradients, is measured
from the flowline
Ex: The FBG at 10000 ft is 15.7 ppg
EMW, pore pressure is 8148 psi
NPP, NFBG, PP and FBG
Equivalent Circulating Density

It is the equivalent density to the

pressure exerted at any point in the hole
during circulating, including annular
pressure losses.
ECD = MW + imposed pressures
(surface press losses, annular
pressures, cuttings, etc.)
Formation Fracture Pressure
Fracture pressure is the minimum
lateral stress that must be overcome to
fracture the rock.
LOT is the best way to get an accurate
value of the formation fracture pressure.
The fracture gradient is the unit
increase in fracture pressure for a
vertical pressure increase in depth.
Formation Pressure Concepts

END OF TOPIC
Causes of Abnormal Pressures
Geologic Conditions Favorable to Overpressure

Young sediments (Tertiary)

Thick sedimentary sequences (Basins)
Presence of clays/shales
Interbedded Sandstones of limited extent
(Deltaic and transgression-regression
sequences)
Rapid deposition and burial (Deltas)
Causes of Abnormal Pressures

Undercompaction
Diagenesis
Thermal Effects
Osmosis
Tectonism
Miscellaneous Processes
Production and charging
Overburden Effect and Compaction

The overburden effect is defined as

the result of the action of subsidence on
the interstitial fluid pressure of the
formation.
Compaction is the process whereby
grains respond to a load stress by
inelastic deformation.
Undercompaction: Principle
If fluids can only be expelled with
difficulty relative to burial conditions,
they must support all or part of the
weight of the overlying sediments
When the interstitial fluid supports part
of the overburden, there is
undercompaction.
Also called Compact Disequilibrium
Undercompaction: Factors

Factors relevant to abnormal pressures

Deposition rate
Volume of sediment deposited
NOTE: Pore pressure intensity is
dependent on the sedimentation rate
Clay Compaction: Porosity/Depth Relationship
Bulk Density Reversal In An Overpressured Zone
Undercompaction: Areas

Areas where overpressure regimes are

frequent
Recent deltaic formations
Passive continental margins
Accretion prisms of subduction zones
Undercompaction: Conclusion

Formation pressure intensity is controlled

as much by the rate of subsidence as by
the dewatering efficiency. Imbalance
between these two factors is the most
frequent cause of abnormal pressure.
Diagenesis

Diagenesis is the physical and chemical

changes that take place within a rock
after deposition.
Diagenesis: Scope of study
Clay diagenesis
Carbonate compaction
Dolomitisation
Gypsum/anhydrite relationship
Evaporite deposit seals
Solution processes
Organic matter transformation
Clay Diagenesis: Clay Minerals
Phyllosilicate group
Are products of weathering and
alteration on parent rocks
Most common clay minerals
Kaolinite
Vermiculite
Montmorillonite (smectite)
Illite
Montmorillonites
Products of alkaline conditions and the
alteration of basic material with
available Mg and Ca
The most common clays in marine
environments and also the most widely
distributed
Swelling clays
Also called smectites
Clay Diagenesis
Smectites with 10
layers of water
(pyrophyllites)
When 6 layers are
removed, clay is
altered to herringbone
structure
(montmorillonites)
With further burial
remaining 4 layers are
expelled -> illite
Clay Diagenesis: Consequences
With burial, smectites -> illite
Clay diagenesis is essentially an
endothermic de-watering of
montmorillonite (100-250 deg C)
Also called Montmorillonite Dehydration
Affected by: Temp variations and ionic
activity
Clay Diagenesis: Conclusion
Clay diagenesis is thought to be a
secondary rather than a major cause of
overpressure
By adding to the abnormal pressure from
overburden effects (undercompaction) it
can explain pressure gradients that rise
more steeply than the overburden
gradient
Carbonate Compaction
Among the carbonates it is only chalk that
undergoes the effects of undercompaction
seen in clays and shales
Chalk is made up of coccoliths. Its special
texture makes it behave like clay with respect
to porosity reduction and water expulsion.
Thick chalk deposits may develop
undercompaction due to their low permeability.
Dolomitisation

Dolomitisation is the transformation of

trigonal calcite, CaCO3, to trigonal
dolomite, CaMg (CO3)2
Secondary dolomitisation is caused at
depth by circulating solutions rich in Mg
and CO2
Dolomitisation: Effects And Relevance
Increase in bulk density (from 2.71 to 2.86
g/cc) -> increase in porosity and permeability
-> common cause of abnormally low
pressures if there is no appropriate change in
the volume of pore fluid -> lost circulation of
drilling fluids can occur
If the pore pressure is abnormally high in the
dolomites -> can be a source of pore fluid
influx
Dolomites: Occurence

Primary deposits like the Permian

evaporites in northern England
Derived by metasomatic alteration thru
penecontemporaneous dolomitisation
over a large area of unconsolidated
limestone deposited on the sea floor
Gypsum/Anhydrite Relationship

Gypsum is the initial hydrated deposit of

calcium sulfate, (CaSO4.H2O), associated
with marine sediments, esp. evaporites
Anhydrite or hemihydrate is the
dehydrated form:
CaSO4.2H2O <> CaSO4 (anhydrite) + 2H2O
CaSO4.2H2O <> CaSO4.1/2H2O
(hemihydrate) + 3/2H2O
Gypsum/Anhydrite: Effects and Relevance

Anhydrite is the result of diagenetic

dehydration of gypsum at 25C to 40C
Physical changes that take place:
Increase in density from 2.35 to 2.98 g/cc
40% loss in volume
An overall increase in substance volume of about
1%
Rehydration of anhydrite and the associated
increase in bulk is a possible cause of
overpressure but is entirely unfeasible below
3000 ft
Evaporite Deposit Seals

2 roles in abnormal pressure development:

As a seal
As a pressure generator like diapirs
However, on the regional scale the inherent
mobility of evaporite deposits can
jeopardize the effectiveness of the seal.
Solution Processes

Solutions either dissolve or precipitate

substances
Most significant contribution of the
solution process is the precipitation of
an impermeable layer to form a seal
further impeding permeability
Organic Matter Transformation
Organic matter is broken down into:
Biogenic methane (bacterial action)
Gas and light hydrocarbons
(thermochemical cracking)
Biogenic Methane

Organic matter broken down by bacteria

-> Biogenic methane -> trapped ->
shallow gas hazard
Thermochemical Cracking
Involves creating hydrocarbons from organic
matter and transforming a heavy product into
a lighter one under the influence of high
temperatures
Organic matter thermochemically craked ->
heavy HC -> lighter HC -> volume increase
and free gas -> microfissuring -> secondary
migration
Pressure anomalies and undercompaction
due to the overburden effect will be magnified
if gaseous hydrocarbons are generated at the
same time
Overpressures in Reservoirs

Water pressures which may be normal

at the base of the zone are transmitted
to overlying oil and gas pockets thereby
creating an overpressured gas
formation at the top of the layer.
Diagenesis: A Review

The most important diagenetic process is

clay diagenesis but it plays a secondary
role in overpressure development
Aquathermal Pressuring: Principle
Concept put forward by Barker (1972)
Any fixed volume of water that is isolated due
to formation of permeability barriers is subject
to the effects of temperature and imposed
pressure.
A temperature increase causes pore waters
to expand and, if a sealed volume undergoes
a temperature increase through burial, very
rapid pressure increases can occur.
Aquathermal Pressuring: Conditions

Aquathermal pressuring only has an

effect if the following conditions are
satisfied:
The environment is completely isolated
Pore volume is constant
The rise in temperature takes place after
the environment is isolated
Aquathermal Pressuring: Conditions
Max pore pressure increase = OBP +
tensile strength of the seal
If the isolated body is raised through the
geothermal gradient -> underpressured
(ex. unconformities)
If the isolated body is lowered through
the geothermal gradient ->
overpressured
A thin seal -> no transition zone
Aquathermal Pressuring: Objections

Completely impervious zones are rare

Transition zones reflect the hydraulic
transmissivity through clays
A rise in temperature reduces viscosity
and makes fluids easier to expel
Aquathermal Pressuring: Conclusion

It produces increased pressure due to a

temperature rise in the closed system
Its overall contribution is not easy to
quantify
Importance of thermal effect in the
creation of abnormal pressure is a
matter of great controversy
Osmosis: Definition
Osmosis is the spontaneous flow of fluids
from a dilute solution to a more concentrated
solution through a semi-permeable
membrane until the concentration of each
solution becomes equal, or until the
development of osmotic pressure prevents
further movement
From fresh to saline
Clay could be considered a semi-permeable
membrane
Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure is proportional to the
difference in ionic concentrations
When the concentration differential is
constant, the pressure increases with
temperature
In a closed environment, the migration
of water towards the higher saline body
tends to increase pressure in that body
until it is equal to the osmotic pressure
Electro-Osmosis and Thermo-Osmosis

Electro-Osmosis: The 2 solutions contain

dissolved ions that tend to be chemically
active electrical potential induces fluid
flow
Thermo-Osmosis: temperature may also
influence fluid movement
Reverse Osmosis
Migration of water from strongly saline
areas towards areas of weaker salinity
under the influence of pressure
differential
Possible if the pressure of the body with
lower salinity is greater than the osmotic
pressure
Chocolate Bayou field, Texas
Osmosis As A Cause Of Geopressures
In order for osmosis to be a major
geopressure-generating mechanism:
A clay bed separating two sandstone beds (having
different salinity pore fluids) must be an efficient
semi-permeable membrane
If hydraulic conductivity is restricts the flow from
the body with lower concentration to that of higher
concentration, the pore pressure will rise.
To explain certain very rare instances of
combined pressure and salinity anomalies
(esp. the Morrow lenticular sandstones in
Oklahoma)
Osmosis: Conclusion
Lab tests have proven that osmotic
effects are real but field evidence of
osmotic effects is not so certain
It seems that that the capacity for
osmosis to generate abnormal pressure
is limited to special cases such as
sharply contrasting salinity, proximity to
salt domes and lenticular series
Tectonism: Categories

Uplift
Faulting
Folding
Sediment deformation
Diapirism
Uplift
Zones of high pressure are brought closer to
the surface by uplift (paleopressures)
Hypothesis assumes the following:
Closed system
Rapid uplift relative to geological time
Objections:
Fracturing accompanies uplift
Lower temperature decreases fluid volume and
therefore pressure
Tectonic Faulting: Effects
Possible increase in rate and volume of
deposition across faults into the
downthrown side
Faults form seal to fluid movement
Faults may raise or lower a formation
through the geothermal gradient with
consequence for aquathermal
pressuring
Tectonic Faulting: Types

Normal
Wrench
Thrust
Strike-slip
Folding

The same tectonic forces that cause

thrust faulting will cause beds of
sediment to buckle. This will have
similar effects of raising and lowering
beds through compaction and
geothermal gradients.
Sediment Deformation: Deltas
Two zones of a delta are:
Proximal zone (growth faults)
Distal zone (shale domes and ridges)
Deltas: Growth Faults

Also known as synsedimentary or listric

faults
Possess a curved fault plane which is
concave towards the basin
Deltas: Growth Faults
Deltas: Shale Diapirism

Shale domes are the result of intrusive

flow from underlying layers (shale
diapirism)
They are always undercompacted, and
therefore abnormally pressured
Deltas: Shale Diapirism

A: Paleopressures
B: Confinement of
pierced layers
C: Isolated rafts
D: Pressure transfer
E: Osmotic effects
Subduction Zones
Sediments in the arc foredeep are deposited
rapidly and come under the compressive
deformation of the accretionary prism
Undercompacted argillaceous layers allow
the formation of overthrusts
Extensive clay diapirism and mud volcanoes
(which are the ultimate expression of clay
diapirism) confirm the presence of
undercompacted argillaceous layers along
subduction zones
Tectonism: A Summary
Extension Open fractures Pressure
dissipation Easy expulsion of fluids
Compaction Normal pressure
Compression Easy expulsion of fluids
Compaction Normal pressure
Compression Difficult expulsion
Undercompaction Overpressure Poss.
Hydraulic fracturing Expulsion
Compaction
Miscellaneous: Permafrost
Taliks pockets of ground surrounded
by permafrost that are in an unfrozen
state
Overpressure happens when the taliks
freeze
Phenomena is localized
Miscellaneous: Pingo

A pingo is an anticlinal-looking mound

found in the tundra during winter
caused by freezing of shoaling lakes,
trapping water and compressing it.
Never drill on a pingo
Production And Recharging
Shallow producing formations are charged
from fluids escaping deeper production zones
Underground blowouts could introduce higher
pressures to shallow formation
Excessive ECDs can induce supercharging
of permeable formations
Reservoir depletions may cause
underpressures -> lost circulation and stuck
pipe problems
Underground Blowout

Well kicks shut-in casing shoe or

weakest fm is fractured flow of fluids to
shallower permeable zones danger that
other wells that will be drilled nearby will
encounter shallow overpressured zones
Causes of Abnormal Pressure: Conclusion
Points to be considered:
The crucial importance of seals and drains in
maintaining abnormal pressure
Time is the determining factor in fluid dispersal
(most overpressures are found in young
sedimentary sequences)
High pressure may result from a combination of
various causes
Most high-pressure zones are more likely to be
found in clay-sandstone sequences
The lithological changes which some of the
causes bring about can be used for detection
purposes during drilling
Causes of Abnormal Pressure

END OF TOPIC
Overpressure Detection Techniques
Normal Compaction Trend
Needed as reference for quantitative analysis
Factors that influence the slope of a normal
compaction curve:
The mineralogy and relative proportions of the
phyllosilicates in the clay
The non-argillaceous mineral content (qtz, organic
cmpds, etc.)
The sedimentation rate
The geothermal gradient
Characteristics of Undercompacted Zones

Transition Zone
Diagenetic Cap-Rock
Transition Zone
The transition zone is an interval which
exhibits a gradual change in pore pressure
from hydrostatic to abnormal, or from
abnormal to even a higher pressure
Develops because of inefficient seal / trap
Thickness depends on:
Permeability / Drainage conditions of adjacent
beds
Age of overpressure
A transition zone is an overpressured zone
Diagenetic Cap-Rock

Diagenetic cap-rocks are the

indurated and carbonated shale levels
at the top of certain undercompacted
zones.
Considered either to be a cause or a
consequence of overpressure.
Do not necessarily accompany
undercompacted sequences.
Predictive Methods

Used before drilling

Methods:
Regional geology
Geophysical methods (seismic (most
frequently used), gravity, magnetic survey)
Real Time Drilling Methods

Parameters while drilling

ROP
Dxc
Sigmalog
Normalised ROP
MWD measurements
Torque
Drag
Real Time Drilling Methods

Mud Parameters
Pit levels
Mud flow
Pump pressure
Not Real Time Drilling Methods

Mud Parameters
Gas
Mud density
Mud temperature
Mud resistivity
Not Real Time Drilling Methods

Cuttings Analysis
Lithology
Shale density
Shale factor
Cuttings/Cavings shape, size, abundance
Cuttings gas
Post / While Drilling Methods

Wireline Logs
Resistivity
Sonic
Density / Neutron
Gamma Ray
Post Drilling Methods

Formation Tests
DSTs
Wireline formation tests
Well seismic check
Checkshot
VSP
ROP

All else equal, ROP will decrease with

increasing depth in a normally
pressured environment.
An overpressured formation tends to be
undercompacted with respect to its
depth making it easier to drill out.
ROP: Factors
Lithology
Compaction
Differential Pressure
WOB
RPM
Torque
Hydraulics
Bit type and wear
Personnel and equipment
ROP: Factors: Lithology

All else equal, a change in ROP reflects

a lithological change.
When examining compaction, ROP
analysis is in 2 stages:
Identify argillaceous beds
Examine how ROP changes with them
ROP: Factors: Compaction

The relative change in ROP is a function

of the degree of undercompaction.
ROP increases in undercompacted
zones.
ROP: Factors: Differential Pressure

Differential pressure (P) is the

difference between the pressure
exerted by the mud column and the
pore pressure.
For any given lithology ROP slows as
P increases and vice versa.
ROP: Factors: WOB
Changes in WOB have more effect on ROP
than any other drilling parameter
ROP increases with increase in WOB
Terms:
Threshold weight: minimum WOB needed to get
drilling started
Flounder point: ROP stops rising even with
increases in WOB because teeth of bit are
jammed in the rock; valid for soft formations only
ROP: Factors: RPM

The relationship between ROP and

RPM in soft formations is nearly linear,
but the harder the rock, the shorter will
be the linearity
ROP: Factors: Torque
Difficult to assess and must be thought of as
a second order parameter because surface
sensors could not separate bit torque from
string torque
Torque increases as depth increases
An undercompacted sequence may cause an
increase in torque (swelling clays decrease
hole ID, sloughing clays = large amt of
cuttings around bit and stabilizers
Bit balling-up (reduced and steady torque) at
depth may indicate a transition zone
ROP: Factors: Hydraulics

Not fully understood because mud

properties are interdependent
A change in flow rate can cause a
change in ROP
Mud properties can also affect ROP
Low viscosity may improve ROP
Water-loss can affect ROP by bringing P
to 0
ROP: Factors: Bit Type And Wear
Optimizing the ROP chiefly depends on
matching the bit type to the formation
If possible, do not change bit types when you
are approaching a transition zone
At the end of its useful life, a bit can mask
changes in lithology, compaction or
differential pressure due to a decrease in
ROP under the effects of wear
ROP: Factors: Personnel And Equipment

Rig equipment can impose an upper

limit on parameters. Personnel, esp.
drillers, must ensure that the chosen
drilling parameters are done.
ROP: Conclusion

Many parameters affect the reliability of

the ROP measurement. To use it
properly we have to employ drilling
models, such as the Dxc, the Sigmalog
or normalized drilling rate.
Dxc

Developed to help in correcting or

normalizing the ROP for the effects of
changes in WOB, RPM, hole size and
mud weight with respect to the
recognized effects of differential
pressure and compaction on ROP
Dx: Formula

Dx = log (R/60N) / log (12WOB/106D)

Or
Dx = (1.26 log (R/N)) / (1.58
log(WOB/D))

Where R = ROP (ft/hr or m/hr); N = RPM;

W = WOB (lbs or tons); D = bit size, in.
Dx Exponent
Where lithology is constant, the d exponent
gives a good indication of the following:
The state of compaction
Differential pressure
For normally pressured sediments, the d
exponent yields a trend of increasing values
with depth; a trend of decreasing values is
often indicative of increasing pore pressure
Dxc: Formula
Dx normalized for changes in MW
and/or ECD
Dxc = Dx x (normal pressure (ppg) /
ECD or mud weight (ppg))
Modification does not correct the d exponent
for overbalance
It is particularly sensitive to large changes in
mud weight with no associated changes in
pore pressure. Therefore, it is much more
indicative of pore pressure changes if the
differential pressure is small.
Dxc: Factors
Parameters in the Dxc formula
ROP
RPM
WOB
Bit diameter
Normal pore pressure
Mud weight or ECD
Dxc: Factors

Other mechanical parameters

Bit type / drilling action
Bit wear
BHA configuration
Hole angle
Junk in hole
Dxc: Factors
Formation parameters
Unconformities
Lithological variations
Mud parameters not found in the Dxc
parameters
Bit hydraulics
Differential pressure
Dxc: Factors: Turbine Motors
Where minimal bit weights and high RPM
are used, the Dxc values are deviated and
these values should be ignored and it is
futile to shift the trend line because:
1. The drilling action associated with the turbine
run is controlled and not influenced by the
formations drillability.
2. The hole angle is being changed and it is very
difficult to fit or shift a trend line to deviating well
data.
3. The turbine run might be short.
Dxc: Factors: Hole Change

Usually, the calculated Dxc exponents

are quite different above and below a
change in hole size.
Dxc: Factors: Bit Type / Drilling Action

The Dxc was formulated for the drilling action

of milled tooth bits however in recent years
it has been applied to other bit types.
When there is a change from one type of
drilling action to another there is usually a
noticeable change in the Dxc. Therefore, it is
usually necessary to shift the trend line.
If the bit type used was not suitable to drilling
the hole, disregard the data.
Dxc: Factors: Bit Wear

Often encountered in clastic limestones

Not usually evident in shales unless
they have reached maximum
compaction
No need to shift the trend line
Dxc: Bit Wear Corrections
Bit wear corrections are frequently used by
mud logging companies, but are not entirely
satisfactory for the following reasons:
Any relationship between ROP and wear is not
realistic
Bit wear formulae do not take lithology into
account. In particular they ignore the hardness
and abrasiveness of the formation being drilled
Bit wear evaluation while drilling takes no account
of WOB
Dxc: Factors: BHA

The stabilizer of the BHA may support

some of the drilling weight and result in
erroneous data. This will be particularly
evident in deviated wells.
Dxc: Factors: Hole Angle
The Dxc values will be higher than their true
value unless true WOB values are available from
MWD measurements
It is not possible to fit a straight-line trend to a
Dxc plot through a section when the hole angle is
being increased or decreased.
If the hole angle is consistent and the plot is
against TVD the trend line can be shifted
horizontally to fit the deviated well data.
The compaction trend must be established
using vertical depths and not drilled depths in
deviated wells.
Dxc: Factors: Junk
The ROP will naturally be reduced by
debris.
No adjustment of the trend line.
Dxc: Factors: Unconformities

Permanent trend line shifts are valid

when a major unconformity is drilled.
Dxc: Factors: Lithological Variations

Only valid for shales and clastic

limestones
There are further limitations of
composition and structure
Dxc: Factors: Lithological Variations:
Composition
Selected shale and limestone data
points should be of similar composition
and mineralogy esp. in areas of shelf
sedimentation. Not a consideration in
areas of consistent sedimentation like
basins and deltas.
In areas of shelf sedimentation (Arabian
Gulf) you can have different trend lines
for different lithologies
Dxc: Factors: Lithological Variations:
Structure
Data from shallow less consolidated depths
cant be interpreted and be used for
positioning of the trend lines because the
drilling parameters found in the Dxc formula
are not entirely responsible for ROP.
It is important to base the trend line upon
properly indurated sediments.
There is possibility of trend line shifting when
oolitic and pelletal limestones are
encountered.
Dxc: Factors: Bit Hydraulics

Circulation rates may influence the ROP

if there is considerable change. (ex from
good hole cleaning to annulus
overloading)
Poor bit hydraulics will result in reduced
ROP and a temporary trend line shift
might be necessary.
Dxc: Factors: Differential Pressure
When drilling with an overbalance in
excess of 500 psi it is observed that the
Dxc is insensitive to changes in
overbalance.
Possibility that pressure reversals will
go unnoticed and result in hole
problems such as differentially sticking
or mud losses.
Dxc: Trend Lines
The trend line is critical to the evaluation of
the Dxc
Recommended that the original trend line is
retained for reference even after a shift has
been implemented
4 situations to shift trend lines
Major unconformity (rare)
Drilling section change
Hole inclination change (valid for as long as the
hole has that inclination +/- 5 deg)
Extreme changes in mechanical, hydraulic or
other influences
Dxc: Conclusion

The model is applicable for clay/shale

sequences but has been shown to be
relevant in clastic limestones
AGIP Sigmalog: Aim

To solve the shortcomings of the Dxc

while drilling overpressured sequences
of carbonates, marls and silty shales in
deep wells.
Sigmalog vs. Dxc

Dxc maybe considered as a normalized

ROP
Sigmalog maybe thought of as
representing a rock strength parameter
AGIP Sigmalog: Conclusion

Efficiency of Sigmalog is very similar to

those of Dxc
Not easy to use
Ill suited for unexplored basins
Should be limited to clays and shales
MWD
MWD techniques now provide a range
of methods that are significantly
improving the state of knowledge on
bottomhole drilling parameters and
formation evaluation
Differential resistivity between mud in
the drill pipe and the annular space may
well be considered a kick indicator
Drag, Torque And Fill
Drag is the excess force that is necessary to
pull the drill string up, whether it be for a
connection or a trip. It is often noted in
overpressured shales.
Torque often increases in an overpressured
zone.
Fill is the settling of cuttings and/or cavings at
the bottom of the hole. Often observed when
overpressured shale is drilled.
Drag, Torque And Fill
One additional factor which invariably
affects drag, torque, and, to a certain
degree, fill is shale hydration.
When any water-based drilling mud is
used to drill shales, hydrational
problems manifested as drag, torque,
fill, stuck pipe or hole collapse may be
expected in some degree
Drag, Torque And Fill

Drag, torque and fill are all indirect,

qualitative indicators of overpressure;
they are also indicators of hole
instability and other mechanical
problems that have nothing to do with
overpressure.
Drag, Torque And Fill

0-10 klbs O/P: normal mechanical

stress
10-20 klbs O/P: ave. O/P in clean hole
20-40 klbs O/P: indication of cavings,
clay swelling or high fm. stress
>40 klbs O/P: critical situation where
stuck pipe might occur
Pump Pressure

Standpipe pressure often exhibits a

slightly decreasing trend in an
overpressured zone; this is particularly
true when a kick takes place.
Return Flow And Pit Level

Indicators of kicks
Differential mudflow measurement with
the aid of electromagnetic flow meters is
currently the best way for early
detection of kicks or mud losses; but it
is costly and difficult to install
Gas

Gas may be used as a qualitative and

semi-quantitative indicator of
overpressure.
ILO's THA measures 1% gas in air as
being equivalent to 50 units.
Gas: Types of Gas Shows
Cuttings gas: gas released from the drilled
formation and by the cuttings moving up the
annulus
Produced gas: gas issuing from the borehole
walls
Recycled gas: gas that is detected after one
circulation if the mud is not completely
degassed at the surface
Contamination gas: from petroleum
products in the mud or from thermal
breakdown of additives
Gas
The amount of gas detected at any
point in the well is related to the:
Hydrocarbon distribution
Formation porosity and permeability
Differential pressure
Volume of rock drilled
Circulation rate
Mud characteristics
Measuring equipment
Gas: Background Gas
Background gas is a low but steady level of gas
released by the formation.
There is an increase in the level of background gas
from that found in overlying normally compacted
shales occurs while drilling undercompacted
formations because of:
Generally higher gas content
Increased ROP
Drop in P (if too high can mask or eliminate show)
Any mud weight increase must be gradual. If
background gas diminishes while the mud weight is
being raised, it proves that the cause was P.
Gas: Background Gas

Background gas is often a good method for

detecting and monitoring abnormal pressure.
But some undercompacted shales have no
gas at all, which in this case this parameter
could not be used.
Gas: Gas Shows
Normal drilling conditions: the gas show
exceeds the level of the background
gas. Background gas level is the same
before and after the gas show peak
If P is negative the gas show is bigger.
Gas continues to flow from the reservoir
as drilling continues in the non-reservoir
section below, and this raises the
background gas level.
Gas: Gas Shows
Observing the form and abundance of
gas shows can make it easier to detect
a state of negative differential pressure -
> important for the detection of
abnormal pressures where there is
no transition zone
Connection And Trip Gas

Connection and trip gas are the amounts

of gas which enter the wellbore when the
well is in static condition (no circulation)
The connection gas value must be
reported net of the background gas value
Connection And Trip Gas
The quantity of gas observed at the surface
when circulation is resumed depends mainly
on the following criteria:
Differential pressure
Formation permeability
Nature of the gas contained in the drilled formation
Length of time pumps were stopped
Movement of the drillpipe (swabbing upwards or
surging downwards)
Criteria For Monitoring Connection Gas
Preferential attention must be paid to
connection gases from argillaceous
sections.
Connection gases may be compared
with one another.
In order to keep the effects of swabbing
on connection gas to a minimum it is
recommended that pulling speed should
be kept steady.
Gas: Situations
Background gas stable connection gas sporadic:
Interpreting this situation is ambiguous.
Background gas stable connection gas increasing:
This is typical of entering a transition zone.
Background gas and connection gas on the increase:
This means that a zone of negative P is being
drilled.
The best information concerning well equilibrium is to
be obtained from observing overall trends in
connection gas irrespective of short-term fluctuations.
Abnormal pressure is confirmed if, by adjusting
the mud weight, the value of the connection gas
is reduced.
Gas Component Analysis
Selective retention of heavy HCs
because of the migration of light
components through the transition zone
leads to an anomaly in gas composition
Normally compacted zones: C2/C3 >1
Transition zone: C2/C3 <1
Comparisons should be made between
gas shows from argillaceous layers.
Flowline Temperature: Theory

Overpressured formations, possessing

greater-than-normal quantities of pore
fluid, act as thermal insulators to the
natural flow of heat from the earths
core
Geothermal Concepts

The geothermal gradient is the rate at which

formation temperature increases with depth
Gt = 100 x ((T2 T1)/(D2 D1)
Average geothermal gradients vary from 1.8
and 4.5 degC/100m in sedimentary basins
Flowline Temperature: Expected Response

The fall in the rate of temperature increase on

approaching an insulating body may act as
warning of the presence of undercompacted
clays
Increase in temperature gradient is a feature
common to undercompacted zones and other
insulating formations, such as porous
reservoirs and thick coals
Flowline Temperature: Variables
Amount of cooling depends on length
and size of marine riser
Drilling and circulating halts cool the
mud
Mud transfers
Diurnal and ambient temperature
RPM (has an appreciable effect on
thermal transfers at the borehole walls)
Flowline Temperature: Variables
Lithology (preference to temp from
shale zones)
Kick (increase in temp)
Gas influx (decrease in temp)
Mud type
Sensors
Plotting measurements (poor graphical
representation)
Flowline Temperature: Conclusion
Flowline temperature is a qualitative,
lagged overpressure detection
technique, utilizing trends and changes
in the flowline temperature of drilling
fluids
Temperature anomalies, it is not easy to
detect these using available methods
for measuring mud temperature
Has very limited success esp. offshore
Mud Weight Out
MW out will decrease during a kick
A decrease in mud weight out (for a constant
mud weight in) may be due to the following:
Expansion of gas released by drilling of the
formation as it reaches the surface
A kick
Gas diffusion (if P is negative)
A bubble of air (after tripping or connection)
Mud Resistivity
Usually the pore fluids in an
overpressured zone contain more
dissolved salts than are in the drilling
mud; in this circumstance the resistivity
out will decrease (the mud conductivity
out will increase).
Mud Resistivity
This technique is not effective for drilling
muds containing a high salt content, nor
is it effective for oil muds.
Only kicks or continuous diffusion of
formation water into the well, due to
negative differential pressure, will show
up as significant changes in resistivity.
Shale Density: Theory
Shale density in an undercompacted zone
increases less rapidly and may even fall in
comparison with the density of normally
compacted clays and shales.
For normal pressure, shale density values
should yield a plot of increasing density
versus depth; a departure from this to trend of
decreasing density versus depth represents
overpressure.
Shale Density: Zinc Bromide

Zinc Bromide (ZnBr2) is a white

crystalline salt that is very soluble in
water, and as a saturated solution has a
density of 2.6 g/cm3
Shale Density: Handling Zinc Bromide

Avoid contact with skin and eyes

Wear safety glasses and rubber gloves
during preparation of the solution
Shale Density: Procedure

1. Select a representative surface dried

shale cutting
2. Drop the cutting into the shale density
column
3. Read the level at which it settles
4. Use the calibration chart to determine
the density
Shale Density: A Few Points
The shale cuttings should be fresh
cuttings
Avoid cuttings that have inclusions of
heavy minerals
Keep the top on the burette when not in
use
Recalibrate at least once a week
Shale Density: Limitations
Depends on the selected cuttings being representative
of that particular zone or interval
Shale samples may not be sufficiently consolidated
Shales subject to hydration (use of water-based muds
has an adverse effect on measurements)
Shale mineralogy
User procedural inaccuracies
Equipment calibration
Inability to measure valid density
Equivalent depth method validity
Shale Factor: Theory
The theory behind this technique recognizes
that montmorillonite clay disappears with
depth as it diagenetically alters to illite and
mixed layer clays; hence shale factor
(expressed in ml/gm) should decrease with
depth.
Hence a trend of increasing shale factor
versus depth indicates overpressure
development; this conclusion is usually
corroborated by a trend of decreasing shale
density.
Shale Factor: C.E.C.
Measurement is based on the milliliters of
methylene blue that is absorbed per gram of
crushed shale sample.
Montmorillonite clay possesses a greater
degree of cation exchange capability (C.E.C.)
than illite clay.
Not a reliable technique
Shale Factor: Calculation

Shale Factor (meq/100g) = (100 0.5) x

ml of titrate x 0.01
Where:
ml of titrate = volume of Methylene Blue used
0.01 = normality of Methylene Blue solution
Cuttings And Cavings
An increase in the volume and size of cavings
implies instability of the borehole walls
2 shapes:
Flat, elongate, splintery, concave x section
Blocky often with microfissures
Plate-shaped cavings are not a definite
indication of overpressure, since stress
effects in normally compacted rocks can also
produce them
Cavings
Cuttings Gas

Produced by breaking a certain volume

of cuttings in a blender
Also called blender gas
It is hoped that the frequently noted
increase in gas content in
undercompacted shales will be better
detected by using cuttings gas
Drilling Methods: Conclusion

There are many methods for the

detection of abnormally pressured zones
while drilling, and they vary considerably
in effectiveness.
E-Logs: Eatons Formulae
Resistivity
p = S - ( x (Ro/Rn)1.2)
Conductivity
p = S - ( x (Cn/Co)1.2)
Sonic
p = S - ( x (tn/to)3.0)
Where,
P = pore pressure, psi/ft; S = OBP, psi/ft; =
normal matrix stress pressure, psi/ft (S-Pn); o
= observed value; n = normal value
E-Logs: Resistivity
Use deep resistivity values
Resistivity values will fall when an
undercompacted zone is encountered
Resistivity values are also affected by:
Temperature: T up R down
Hydrocarbons: R increases (106 to 109 ohm-meter for oil,
infinity for gas
Organic matter: R increases
Lithology: slight difference can cause an error when
determining the normal trend
Wash-out: may give rise to errors; check with caliper
E-Logs: Sonic
For normally pressured shales (carbonates): should
exhibit a trend of increasing values vs. depth
A reversal of normal trend (towards decreasing
values) indicates either a change in mineralogy or an
increase in formation pore pressure
The GR and SP logs assist in the identification of
shales and the caliper logs identifies out-of-gauge
hole, for which sonic values are inaccurate and
misleading
A benefit to using the sonic log is that the uppermost
or starting point of the normal trend line should
intersect the 190 to 200 usec/ft transit time value
E-Logs: Density
The normal compaction trend obtained
density logs is effectively linear
Also affected by:
Cavings
Cake thickness
Clay hydration
The normal compaction trend line for
density is difficult to establish because
density logs are rarely run in the hole
E-logs: Conclusion
E-log responses in an undercompacted zone:
Resistivity, sonic, neutron, GR values will
decrease
Conductivity values will increase
Avoid using shallow data
Ignore very thin beds
Remember other phenomena like organic
matter, well conditions and gas content of
clays can affect the reliability of the
measurement
Direct Pressure Measuring Tests
Actual bottom hole pressure
measurements are really the only true
quantitative tools for overpressure
detection and evaluation
Direct measuring tests are:
Kicks FIT
RFT DST
Production test
Overpressure Detection Techniques

END OF TOPIC
Quantitative Pressure Evaluation
Detection methods that can be used to
evaluate pressure quantitatively are:
Formation Tests
Seismic interval velocities
Dxc, Sigmalog, Normalized ROP
Shale Density
Gas Shows
Kicks/ Mud losses
Wireline Logs: Resistivity, Sonic, Density
Equivalent Depth Method: Applications

Interval velocities
Dxc
Shale density
Resistivity / conductivity
Sonic
Density log
Equivalent Depth Method: Principle

The principle is that every point A in an

undercompacted clay section is
associated with a normally compacted
point B. The depth of point B is called
the equivalent depth, or sometimes the
isolation depth.
Equivalent Depth Method: Methodology
Formula to be used if OBG is known:
Pa = (Da x OBGa x 0.0519) (Db x (OBGb Pb) x
0.0519)
or
Pa = Pb + (OBGa OBGb)

If OBG and Normal Pressure Gradient is not known:

Pa = 2.31 1.26 (Db/Da)
or
Pa = 19.26 10.51 (Da/Db)
Produces a small error in onshore wells this should
not be used in offshore wells if at all possible
Establishing Isodensity Lines
1. Extend the normal compaction trend XY to
the depth origin X
2. Choose another point B located on the
normal compaction trend line
3. For a selected value of Da calculate depth A
using: Da = 1.26Db / (2.31 Da)
4. Position point A on the vertical from B, then
draw a straight line XZ passing through A
5. Calculate Pa
Ratio Method: Applications
Dxc
Shale density
Sonic
Resistivity / conductivity
Density
Ratio Method: Principle
The difference between observed
values for the compaction parameter
and the normal parameter extrapolated
to the same depth is proportional to the
increase in pressure
Ratio Method: Methodology

Pb = Pn x (Dxcn / Dxco)
Establishing Isodensity Lines
1. Take a point (A) located on the normal
compaction trend XY
2. Calculate the value of Dxc (B) that would be
observed at point A for a given density
Dxco (B) = Dxcn (A) x (Pn/Pb)
3. Using this value (B) draw a straight line XY
parallel to XY. This represents the gradient
of the selected equilibrium density
Eaton Method: Application
Interval velocities
Dxc
Resistivity / conductivity
Sonic
It maybe extended to:
Shale Density
Density Log
Eaton Method: Principle
The relationship between the observed
parameter/normal parameter ratio and
the formation pressure depends on
changes in the overburden gradient
Most widely used even though it
requires knowledge of the local
overburden gradient.
Eaton Method: Methodology
Resistivity
P = OBG (OBG Pn)(Rsh obs/Rsh
normal)1.2
Conductivity
P = OBG (OBG Pn)(C normal/C obs)1.2
Sonic
P = OBG (OBG Pn)(t normal/t obs)3
Dxc
P = OBG (OBG Pn)(Dxc obs/Dxc
normal)1.2
Establishing Dxc Isodensity Lines

1. Determine the normal compaction trend

line
2. Calculate the theoretical values of the
observed Dxc for different values of the
pressure gradient P using Eatons formula
Dxco = (1.2(OBG-P)/(OBG-Pn)) x Dxcn
Comparison Of 3 Methods

According to Elf studies when formation pressures

are low (<1.40) the Eaton and the ratio methods
give the best results. For formation pressures >
1.40 the Equivalent Depth method is the most
suitable.
The level of accuracy of the Equivalent Depth
method depends directly on the value of the
normal compaction trend. The error is greater the
smaller the gradient of log Dxc against depth.
Quantitative Pressure Evaluation

END OF TOPIC
Kicks and Blowouts

A kick is an unexpected influx of formation

fluids into the borehole
A blowout is an uncontrolled kick
Blowouts
Recent Blowouts
Kick: Causes

Failure to keep the hole full (most kicks

occur while tripping)
Swabbing
Insufficient MW
Poor well planning
Lost circulation
Kick: Recognition

An increase in hookload may indicate an

influx of lighter fluids (less buoyancy)
Pit gain
Increase in return flow
Decrease in pump pressure
Increase in spm
Reduction in MW
Basic Well Control

Two primary objectives:

1. To kill the well safely
2. To minimize borehole stresses
Basic Well Control Theory

BOTH 0 PSI

ANNULUS SIDE

BHP = 5200 PSI

DRILL PIPE SIDE

Slow Pump Rate
The pump rate at which the system pressure
loss is recorded for purposes of well control
is called the slow pump rate, slow pump
pressure, kill rate, or reduced circulating
pressure
Also called slow pump rate, slow pump
pressure, kill rate, reduced circulating
pressure or slow circulating rate
Slow Pump Rate: Reasons
1. The system pressure loss at normal circulating rate plus any
shut-in pressures may be excessive for the pump and surface
connections in use.
2. Any change in the choke opening size at normal pump rates
may cause drastic pressure loss changes across the choke,
which makes good choke control difficult.
3. The mud being displaced in the annulus during a kill
operation needs to be weighted up before it is pumped back
into the well. It may also be contaminated and need treatment.
4. Faster pump rates result in higher annulus pressure losses and
increase the possibility of lost circulation.
5. A slow pump rate of 1-2 bbls/min is considered optimum in
many cases because the system pressure losses are relatively
low at this rate.
Unavailability of Slow Pump Rate

1. Shut in the well and record the SIDPP and the

SICP.
2. Hold the SICP constant with the choke and bring
the pump up to the desired pumping rate.
3. Note the circulating pressure obtained after the
pump has been brought up to the kill rate speed.
4. The kill rate pressure is equal to the observed
circulating pressure minus the SIDPP. (system
pressure loss at kill rate = ICP SIDPP)
Kill Mud Weight

Kill Mud Weight (ppg) = (SIDPP / (0.0519

x TVD)) + Original MW
Kill Mud Weight = ((SIDPP x 19.23) /
TVD) + Original MW
Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP)

ICP = system pressure loss at kill rate +

SIDPP
Final Circulating Pressure (FCP)

FCP = System pressure loss x (Kill

MW/Old MW)
Height Of Influx

Pit level gain < ann. vol. around the DC:

Length of kick = 1029 / (Hole ID2
DCOD2) x kick volume (bbls)
Pit level gain > ann. vol. around the DC:
Length of kick = 1029 / (Hole ID2
DPCOD2) x (kick volume DC ann. vol.)
Identification Of Influx

Influx gradient
DP mud gradient (psi/ft) - ((SICP-
SIDPP)/Height of influx)
Influx Density
Influx gradient / 0.0519
Identification Of Influx

As a general rule:
1 to 3 ppg EMW is assumed to be gas
3 to 5 ppg EMW is assumed to be a mixture
of gas and water or gas and oil
5 to 7 ppg EMW is assumed to be either oil,
water or an oil-water mixture
Amount Of Barite Needed

The amount of barite necessary to increase

the MW to the kill MW is:
Sx/100 bbl mud = 1490 x ((Kill MW Old
MW)/(35.8 Kill MW)
Kick And Kill Procedures

Engineers or Wait and Weight Method

Drillers or Two Circulation Method
Concurrent or Circulate and Weight Method
Engineers Method: Procedure
1. Shut-in well and record SIDPP, SICP, pit gain
2. Compute kill MW and build kill mud
3. Hold casing press constant and bring pump to kill rate
(DPP = ICP)
4. Follow schedule when displacing DP
5. Once DP filled, shut-in well, SIDPP = 0
6. Hold casing press constant and bring pump to kill rate,
(DPP = FCP)
7. Hold at FCP until kill mud at surface
8. Shut down pumps, shut-in well, well is dead
Pressure Schedule For Drillpipe

Calculate the number of strokes required to

displace the drillpipe with the kill mud
Calculate ICP and FCP
Plot the mud volume (bbls or strokes) along
the horizontal axis and the DP pressures
along the vertical axis
Drillers Method: Procedure
1. Shut-in well and record SIDPP, SICP, pit gain
2. Compute kill MW
3. Hold choke pressure constant and pump at kill rate
4. Hold DP pressure steady at ICP until kick out of hole
5. Shut-in well and build kill MW
6. Hold casing pressure steady and pump at kill rate
7. Once DP full, observe FCP
8. Keep pumping at kill rate and constant FCP until kill
mud at surface
9. Verify SIDPP = SICP = 0, open choke to check if well is
dead
10. If no flow, open well
Concurrent Method: Procedure
1. Shut-in well using preferred shut-in procedure and
record the SIDPP, SICP and the amount of pit gain
2. Hold casing press constant and bring pump to kill rate
(DPP = ICP)
3. Follow schedule when displacing DP
4. Once DP filled, shut-in well, SIDPP = 0
5. Hold casing press constant and bring pump to kill rate,
(DPP = FCP)
6. Hold at FCP until kill mud at surface
7. Shut down pumps, shut-in well, check if well is dead
8. If not repeat steps 2 to 9.
Kick And Kill Procedures: Conclusion

The Wait and Weight Method using the

proper kill weight results in the least
amount of casing pressure and the least
borehole stresses.
The Concurrent Method allows lower
casing pressure values than the Drillers
Method.
Overkilling the well has no tangible benefit.
Maximum Shut-in Casing Pressure

SICPmax = 0.0519 x (FGmin MW) x Dwf

Kick Tolerance
Kick Tolerance is the maximum Pore
Pressure (FBG) that may be encountered
and a kick taken at the present depth with
the present MW and the well shut-in
without downhole fracturing occuring.
K = ((Dwf/Db) x (FGmin MW)) + MW
Value will decrease with depth
It is a safety measure and always calculated
Minimum Kick Tolerance

Kmin = ((Dwf/Db) x (FGmin MW))

((Lk/Db) x (MW-MWk)) + MW
To be calculated and reported only when the
volume and density of a kick are specified
by the client
Differential K and Kmin

K = K MW
Kmin = Kmin MW
Value will decrease with depth
Kicks And Basic Well Control

END OF TOPIC
Evaluation of the OBG
OBG increases rapidly to reach values
which tend to stabilize below a certain
depth
Significant errors arise when constant
gradients are assumed offshore
Calculated using:
Wireline density data
Shale densities
Seismic interval velocities
OBG Values From Log Densities
Pro: Most reliable as long as recording
conditions are satisfactory
Con: Generally not recorded in the upper
section or in zones without hydrocarbons
OBG Values From Sonic Log
b = 3.28 t/89 for consolidated fms
b = 2.75 2.11((t tm)/(t +200))
for unconsolidated fms
Where:
t = sonic log transit time (sec/ft)
tm = matrix transit time (sec/ft)
b = bulk density (g/cc)
Values of Matrix Transit Time
Matrix tm (sec/ft)
Dolomite 43.5
Limestone 43.5 47.6
Sandstone * 47.6 55.6
Anhydrite 50
Salt 67
Clay 47 (estimated)
Fracture and Overburden Pressure

OBP or OBG = pore pressure + matrix

confining stress
S=+p
The Stress Field

1
3

2
Poissons Ratio
l
l d
d

Poissons ratio is defined as the ratio of

transverse strain to axial strain:
V = (d/d)/(l/l)
Fracture Pressure Detection Formulas
Hubbert and Willis
Matthews and Kelly
Eaton
Christman
Anderson, Ingram and Zanier
Daines
Sigmalog
Pilkington
Breckels and Van Eckelen
Bryant
Hubbert and Willis

Pfrac (psi/ft) = (S + 2P)/3

Where:
P = pore pressure gradient, psi/ft
S = overburden gradient, 1.0 psi/ft
Hubbert and Willis: Limitations

Their equation indicates that fracture

pressure gradient remains constant with
depth, increasing only with pore pressure
increases; this constant fracture gradient
hypothesis is not consistent with field data.
Matthews and Kelly

F = Kj x + p
Where:
Kj = variable matrix stress factor which is a
ratio of the horizontal to vertical stress,
3/1 (from LOT, etc)
Matthews and Kelly: Highlights

Recognizes that the ratio 3/1 varies with

formation density, compaction and depth
Assumes that the matrix stress factor for
abnormally pressured formations is just the
same as for a particular normally pressured
formation
Matthews and Kelly: Limitations

Assumes a constant overburden gradient

equivalent to 1.0 psi/ft
Does not recognize any effect of pore
pressure on the physical properties of rocks
Eaton

Pf = (v/(1-v)) x + p
Where:
v = Poissons ratio
=SP
Eaton: Highlights

Recognized the variability of overburden

gradient and matrix stress factor
To determine fracture gradient Eaton
utilizes a plot of variable overburden
gradient
Recognized that both Poissons ratio and
overburden gradient are functions of depth
Eaton: Limitations

Difficult to use in the field because it is

difficult to use because it relies so heavily
on obtaining local fracture pressure data
Christman

Pf = K + p
A modification of Eatons formula for application
on offshore drilling
Recognized a variable stress ratio and a variable
overburden gradient that considered not only the
water depth but also the air gap
Showed there to be a direct relationship
between rock bulk density and stress ratio
Anderson, Ingram and Zanier

Recognized that large variations in fracture

pressure gradients existed at the same
depths within the same geological area
Showed that Poissons ratio was very
sensitive to changes in shale content which
can be measured from sonic and density
logs
Daines

Re-emphasized Terzaghis notion of

additional tectonic stresses superimposed
upon the local effective stresses
F = t + 1 x (v/(1-v)) + p
Where,
F = fracture pressure
t = superimposed tectonic stress
1 = effective vertical stress = - p
Daines: Advantages

Recognition of tectonic stresses that exist

when drilling around salt domes and in
areas which are characterized by
compression tectonics (ex. Gulf of Alaska)
Recognizes that Poissons ratio varies with
rock type and the percentage of constituents
Daines: Disadvantages

Involves numerous values of Poissons ratios that

are obtained from sonic testing
If t is for some reason not measured accurately
on the first fracture test, all subsequent calculated
fracture values will be in error
Even if t is believed accurate, field experience
will show that the two sides of the Daines
expression will often be unbalanced, necessitating
recalculation of a Poissons ratio to fit observed
fracture pressures
Sigmalog

For elastic formations:

F = (2/(1-)) x + p
For elastic formations susceptible to fluid invasion
F = (2) x + p
For plastic formations such as shales, marls and
salts (has not been corroborated by most field
data)
F=S
Where:
= Poissons ratio
Pilkington

Similar to Eaton but does not require actual

leak-off data to predict fracture gradients
It utilizes an effective stress ratio K that is
calculated using the Brister equations
Breckels and Van Eckelen

Shmin = 0.197 x D1.145 + 0.46 x (Pc-Pcn)

for D < 11500 ft
Shmin = 1.167 x D 4596 + 0.46 x (Pc-
Pcn) for D > 11500 ft
Bryant

F = k + p
The effective stress ratio K is
determined by two differing means:
K from South Texas Gulf Coast data when
p < 1.4 pn
K calculated by K = P/S when p > 1.4 pn
Conclusion
1. Hubert and Willis in most cases calculates
fracture pressures which are lower than observed.
2. Matthews and Kelly predict gradients that are too
high
3. The Eaton method cannot really be used with any
measure of success, since it cannot be utilized in
a predictive mode for an area where little
necessary data is available
4. The Agip, Daines and Bryant methods yield very
similar results
Conclusion
5. Pilkingtons method yields generally low results
6. Breckels and Eckelens method, although not in
as close agreement as Agip, Daines and Bryant
and the adjusted Eaton, yields reasonable results
7. The Hubert and Willis and the Matthews and
Kelly methods will, in general, indicate the lower
and upper limits of fracture gradients,
respectively, whereas the adjusted Eaton, Agip,
Daines and Bryant methods may indicate a much
closer approximation to actual fracture gradients
Conclusion
8. The Agip method appears very reasonable and
does not require a fracture test and is therefore
the easiest to use
9. The Daines method requires a fracture test to be
performed before a value of the tectonic stress
can be found
10. The Eaton method requires fracture tests and,
hence, is very dependent on not only the
frequency and accuracy of these tests, but also on
continual subjective guesstimations of Poissons
ratio
Conclusion
11. Because the Eaton and Daines methods are
dependent upon fracture/leak-off tests, the results
of these methods may be highly inaccurate or of
little predictive value
12. The Agip and Bryant methods exhibit the best
correlation and that both these methods yield
results that are often closest to actual fracture
tests
13. The Agip, Brekels and van Eckelen and Bryant
methods are the only methods that recognize the
influence of formation pressure on the effective
stress ratio
Fracture Pressure

END OF TOPIC