Statistical Quality Control in Textiles

Module 5:

Process Capability Analysis

Dr. Dipayan Das

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Phone: +91-11-26591402
E-mail: Dipayan@textile.iitd.ac.in
Introduction
Process Capability Analysis
When the process is operating under control, we are often required
to obtain some information about the performance or capability of
the process.
Process capability refers to the uniformity of the process. The
variability in the process is a measure of uniformity of the output.
There are two ways to think about this variability.
1) Natural or inherent variability at a specified time,
2) Variability over time.
Let us investigate and assess both aspects of process capability.
Natural Tolerance Limits
The six-sigma spread in the distribution of product quality
characteristic is customarily taken as a measure of process
capability. Then the upper and lower natural tolerance limits are
Upper natural tolerance limit = + 3
Lowe natural tolerance limit = - 3
Under the assumption of normal distribution, the natural tolerance
limits include 99.73% of the process output falls inside the natural
tolerance limits, that is, 0.27% (2700 parts per million) falls outside
the natural tolerance limits.
Techniques for Process Capability Analysis
Techniques for Process Capability Analysis
Histogram
Probability Plot
Control Charts
Histogram
It gives an immediate visual impression of process performance. It
may also immediately show the reason for poor performance.

Poor process capability

is due to poor process
centering
LSL USL

Poor process capability

is due to excess process
variability

LSL USL
 Example: Yarn Strength (cN.tex-1) Dataset
14.11 13.09 12.52 13.40 13.94 13.40 12.72 11.09 13.28 12.34 12.72 13.84 13.78 13.35 15.15 11.44 13.82 14.59 15.71 12.32
14.99 17.97 15.76 13.56 13.31 14.03 16.01 17.71 15.67 16.69 14.08 13.06 13.60 13.51 13.17 14.53 15.35 14.31 14.99 14.77
15.08 14.41 11.87 13.62 14.84 15.44 13.78 13.84 14.99 13.99 13.51 14.87 14.76 13.06 13.69 12.93 13.48 15.21 14.82 13.42
13.14 12.35 14.08 13.40 13.45 13.44 12.90 14.08 14.71 13.11 12.91 14.71 14.84 15.58 14.18 13.30 14.41 12.72 13.62 14.31
13.21 13.69 13.25 14.05 15.58 14.82 14.31 14.92 10.57 15.16 13.50 12.23 13.60 13.89 13.21 14.13 14.08 13.89 14.53 15.58
15.79 15.58 14.67 13.62 15.90 14.43 14.53 13.81 14.92 12.23 13.26 16.32 14.58 13.87 14.31 15.03 14.67 14.41 15.26 15.90
13.78 13.90 15.10 15.26 13.17 13.67 14.99 13.39 14.84 14.15 15.62 14.84 15.47 15.12 15.26 15.68 14.99 15.16 15.12 14.62
15.65 16.38 15.10 14.67 16.53 15.42 15.44 17.09 15.68 15.44 15.08 14.54 14.99 15.36 14.99 14.31 16.96 14.31 14.84 14.26
15.47 15.36 14.38 14.08 14.08 14.84 14.08 14.62 15.05 13.89 14.92 13.78 12.47 12.98 14.72 16.14 15.71 16.53 16.34 16.43
14.41 15.21 14.04 13.44 15.85 14.18 15.44 14.94 14.84 16.19 16.53 14.67 16.08 16.19 15.49 13.85 13.85 15.16 16.11 13.81
15.85 16.49 15.67 14.67 15.46 16.17 14.85 14.68 15.10 15.85 14.40 15.90 14.31 13.51 14.84 13.55 14.52 14.67 15.90 15.16
14.84 13.99 15.44 14.87 14.17 15.36 13.41 15.05 15.10 13.73 14.76 14.53 14.99 14.18 15.62 15.65 13.94 14.08 15.21 14.22
12.26 12.86 14.67 13.35 13.35 13.62 13.69 13.78 12.72 14.18 14.67 13.21 12.53 14.53 15.12 14.67 12.44 11.92 13.06 14.31
11.93 11.82 12.93 12.72 13.41 13.62 12.72 14.48 14.09 14.31 13.14 13.06 13.25 12.19 12.91 11.97 14.09 13.56 14.04 13.40
14.08 14.31 12.40 13.40 13.25 12.44 12.72 13.60 14.31 12.80 14.08 13.53 12.81 12.96 13.21 13.89 12.72 14.41 13.44 13.21
15.32 15.05 15.90 13.78 15.90 15.21 14.18 16.63 15.65 15.34 16.96 17.36 16.11 15.70 15.67 14.97 14.84 15.37 15.58 15.16
14.57 14.92 16.53 17.06 15.03 16.43 15.41 14.18 14.67 15.31 13.44 14.92 16.35 16.32 16.43 14.58 16.14 15.21 15.31 15.22
16.80 15.65 14.43 14.53 15.56 14.97 14.87 14.41 15.94 17.17 14.31 16.34 16.48 15.90 17.12 15.68 15.94 16.35 16.96 15.81
14.31 14.48 13.01 14.18 12.42 12.86 16.94 13.22 13.30 12.95 13.79 14.57 12.47 14.31 14.53 14.43 15.16 13.35 15.58 14.18
13.69 14.45 14.45 11.98 14.16 14.67 14.38 13.29 12.29 14.62 13.89 13.44 14.08 14.35 14.62 13.44 15.01 14.92 14.31 16.14
15.16 16.14 14.62 15.58 15.90 14.08 13.40 14.92 14.41 15.44 15.68 13.85 13.78 15.20 13.69 15.16 14.18 13.62 15.65 16.11
15.12 14.62 15.77 17.51 14.58 13.73 17.89 15.62 10.84 13.32 15.86 15.94 12.60 16.19 15.68 17.49 16.70 16.80 18.02 16.80
17.03 16.80 17.12 16.14 15.90 16.34 16.70 16.09 17.64 15.34
Frequency Distribution
Class Interval Class Value Frequency Relative Relative Frequency
xi ni Frequency gi Density fi
(cN.tex-1) (cN.tex-1) (-) (-) (cN-1.tex)

10.00-11.00 10.50 2 0.0044 0.0044

11.00-12.00 11.50 8 0.0178 0.0178
12.00-13.00 12.50 37 0.0822 0.0822
13.00-14.00 13.50 102 0.2267 0.2267
14.00-15.00 14.50 140 0.3111 0.3111
15.00-16.00 15.50 104 0.2311 0.2311
16.00-17.00 16.50 43 0.0956 0.0956
17.00-18.00 17.50 13 0.0289 0.0289
18.00-19.00 18.50 1 0.0022 0.0022
TOTAL 450 1.0000
 Histogram
Mean = 14.57 cN tex-1
0.4 Standard deviation = 1.30 cN tex-1
The process capability would be
0.3 estimated as follows:
xcNtex-1 3scNtex-1 14.57 3.90

f cN-1 tex 0.2 If we assume that yarn strength

follows normal distribution then it
can be said that 99.73% of the
0.1 yarns manufactured by this
process will break between 10.67
0 cN tex-1 to 18.47 cN tex-1.
0 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
xcNtex-1 Note that process capability can
be estimated independent of the
specifications on strength of yarn.
Probability Plot
Probability plot can determine the shape, center, and spread of the distribution. It
often produces reasonable results for moderately small samples (which the
histogram will not).
Generally, a probability plot is a graph of the ordered data (ascending order) versus
the sample cumulative frequency on special paper with a vertical scale chosen so
that the cumulative frequency distribution of the assumed type (say normal
distribution) is a straight line.
The procedure to obtain a probability plot is as follows.
1) The sample data x1 , x2 , , xn is arranged as x1 , x 2 , , x n where x1 is the
smallest observation, x 2 is the second smallest observation, and x n is the largest
observation, and so forth.
2) The ordered observations x j are then plotted again their observed cumulative
frequency j 0.5 n on the appropriate probability paper.
3) If the hypothesized distribution adequately describes the data, the plotted points
will fall approximately along a straight line.
 Example: Yarn Strength (cN.tex-1) Dataset
Let us take that the following yarn strength data
12.35, 17.17, 15.58, 10.84, 18.02, 14.05, 13.25, 14.45, 12.35, 16.19.
Normal Probability Plot
j xj (j-0.5)/10
0.95
1 10.84 0.05
0.90
2 11.09 0.15
0.75
3 12.35 0.25

Probability
4 13.25 0.35 0.50

5 14.05 0.45
0.25
6 14.45 0.55
7 15.58 0.65 0.10

0.05
8 16.19 0.75
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
9 17.17 0.85 Data

The sample strength data can be regarded as taken from a

10 18.02 0.95 population following normal distribution.
Measures of Process Capability Analysis
Measure of Process Capability: Cp
Process capability ratio (Cp), when
the process is centered at nominal Cp>1

dimension, is defined below

USL LSL
Cp LSL 3 3 USL
6
where USL and LSL stand for
Cp=1
upper specification limit and lower
specification limit respectively and
refers to the process standard
LSL 3 3 USL
deviation.
100(1/Cp) is interpreted as the Cp<1

percentage of the specifications

width used by the process.
3 3
LSL USL
Illustration
Suppose the specifications of yarn strength are given as 14.504
cN.tex-1. As the process standard deviation is not given, we need to
estimate this
f x cN-1 .tex
R 3.110
1.0104
d2 3.078
We assume that the yarn
strength follows normal
distribution with mean at
14.50 cN.tex-1 and standard
deviation at 1.0104 cN.tex-1.
18.5 10.5
Cp 1.3196
6 1.0104 10.5 14.5 xcN.tex 1 18.5
LSL USL
That is, 75.78% of the specifications width is used by the process.
Measure of Process Capability: Cpu and Cpl
The earlier expression of Cp assumes that the process has both upper
and lower specification limits. However, many practical situations
can give only one specification limit. In that case, the one-sided Cp is
defined by
USL
C pu upper specification only
3

LSL
C pl lower specification only
3
Illustration
Suppose the low specification limit of yarn strength are given as
14.50 - 4 cN.tex-1. As the process standard deviation is not given,
we need to estimate this
f x cN-1 .tex
R 3.110
1.0104
d2 3.078
We assume that the yarn
strength follows normal
distribution with mean at
14.50 cN.tex-1 and standard
deviation at 1.0104 cN.tex-1.
14.5 10.5
C pl 1.3196
3 1.0104 10.5 14.5 xcN.tex 1
LSL
That is, 75.78% of the specifications width is used by the process.
Process Capability Ratio Versus Process Fallout [1]

Assumptions: Process
Capability
Process Fallout (in defective parts per million)
One sided Two sided specifications
Ratio
specifications
1) The quality characteristic 0.25 226,628 453,255
is normally distributed. 0.50 66,807 133,614
0.60 35,931 71,861
2) The process is in statistical 0.70 17,865 35,729

control. 0.80 8,198 16,395

0.90 3,467 6,934

3) The process mean is 1.00 1,350 2,700

1.10 484 967
centered between USL and 1.20 159 318
LSL. 1.30 48 96
1.40 14 27
1.50 4 7
1.60 1 2
1.70 0.17 0.34
1.80 0.03 0.06
2.00 0.0009 0.0018
Measure of Process Capability: Cpk
We observed that Cp measures the Process running off-center
capability of a centered process.
But, all process are not necessarily
be always centered at the nominal
dimension, that is, processes may
also run off-center, then the actual
capability of non-centered LSL 3 3 USL

processes will be less than that

indicated by Cp. In the case when
the process is running off-center,
the capability of a process is
measured by the following ratio LSL 3 3 USL

USL LSL
C pk min C pu , C pl min ,
3 3
Interpretations
1) When Cpk=Cp then the process is centered at the midpoint of the
specifications.
2) When Cpk<Cp then the process is running off center.
3) When Cpk=0, the process mean is exactly equal to one of the
specification limits.
4) When Cpk<0 then the process mean lies outside the specification
limit.
5) When Cpk<-1 then the entire process lies outside the specification
limits.
Illustration
Suppose the specifications of yarn strength are given as 144 cN.tex-1.

We assume that the

yarn strength follows f x cN-1 .tex

normal distribution
with mean at 14.50
cN.tex-1 and standard
deviation at 1.0104
cN.tex-1. Clearly, the
process is running off-
center.
18.5 14.5 14.5 10.0
C pk min ,
3 1.0104 3 1.0104 LSL 14.5 USL

min 1.1547,1.4846 1.1547 xcN.tex 1

Inadequacy of Cpk
Let us compare the two processes, Process A and Process B.

Process A B
Mean 50.0 cN 57.5 cN
Standard 5.0 cN 2.5 cN
deviation
Specification 35cN, 65cN 35cN, 65cN
limits
Cp 1 2
Cpk 1 1

Cpk interprets the processes as equally-competent.

Measure of Process Capability: Cpm
One way to address this difficulty is to use a process capability ratio
that is a better indicator of centering. One such modified ratio is

USL LSL
C pm
6

where is the square root of expected squared deviation from the

target T
1
T USL LSL
2
Then, 2 2 T
2

USL LSL USL LSL PCR

C pm
6 2 T T T
2 2 2

6 1 1

Measure of Process Capability: Cpmk
For non-centered process mean, the modified process capability ratio
is
USL LSL
C pmk min ,
3 3

where is the square root of expected squared deviation from the

target T
1
T USL LSL
2
Then, 2 2 T
2

USL LSL
C pmk min ,
2
3 1 T 3 1 T
2

Illustration
Take the example of process A and process B. Here T=50 cN. Then,
Process A B
Mean 50.0 cN 57.5 cN
Standard 5.0 cN 2.5 cN
deviation
Specification 35cN, 65cN 35cN, 65cN
limits
Cp 1 2
Cpk 1 1
Cpm 1 0.63
Cpmk 1 0.1582
Note to Non-normal Process Output
An important assumption underlying the earlier expressions and
interpretations of process capability ratio are based on a normal
distribution of process output. If the underlying distribution is non-
normal then
1) Use suitable transformation to see if the data can be reasonably
regarded as taken from a population following normal distribution.
2) For non-normal data, find out the standard capability index
USL LSL
C pc

6 E x T
2
1
where T USL LSL
2
Note to Non-normal Process Output
3) For non-normal data, use quantile based process capability ratio

USL LSL
Cp q
x0.99865 x0.00135

As it is known that, for normal distribution,

x0.00135 3
x0.99865 3

USL LSL USL LSL

Then, Cp q Cp
3 3 6
Inferential Properties of Process Capability Ratios
Confidence Interval on Cp
In practice, the point estimate of Cp is found by replacing by
sample standard deviation s. Thus, a point estimate of Cp is found as
follows
USL LSL
Cp
6s
If the quality characteristic follows a normal distribution, then a
100(1-)% confidence interval on Cp is obtained as

12 2,n1 2 2,n1
C p C p C p
n 1 n 1

where 1 2,n1 and 2 2,n1 are the lower 2 and upper

2

2 percentage points of the chi-square distribution with n-1

degree of freedom.
Confidence Interval on Cpk
A point estimate of Cpk is found as follows

USL LSL
C pk min ,
3s 3 s

If the quality characteristic follows a normal distribution, then a

100(1-)% confidence interval on Cpk is obtained as

1 1 1 1

C pk 1 u 2 C pk C pk 1 u 2

9nPCRk 2
2 n 1
9nPCRk 2
2 n 1
Example
Suppose the specifications of yarn strength are given as 14.504
cN.tex-1. A random sample of 450 yarn specimens exhibits mean yarn
strength as 14.57 cN.tex-1 and standard deviation of yarn strength as
1.23 cN tex-1. Then, the 95% confidence interval on process capability
ratio is found as follows
18.5 14.57 14.57 10.5
C pk min , 1.07
3 1.23 3 1.23

1 1 1 1
1.07 1 1.96 C pk 1.07 1 1.96
9 450 1.07 2 2 450 1 9 450 1.07 2
2 450 1

0.991190 C pk 1.148810
Test of Hypothesis about Cp
Many a times the suppliers are required to demonstrate the process
capability as a part of contractual agreement. It is then necessary
that Cp exceeds a particular target value say Cp0. Then the statements
of hypotheses are formulated as follows.
H: Cp=Cpo (The process is not capable.)
HA: Cp>Cpo (The process is capable.)
The supplier would like to reject H thereby demonstrating that the
process is capable. The test can be formulated in terms of C p in
such a way that H will be rejected if C p exceeds a critical value C.
A table of sample sizes and critical values of C to assist in testing
process capability is available.
Test of Hypothesis about Cp (Continued)
The Cp(high) is Sample ==0.10 ==0.05
defined as a size Cp(high)/Cp C/Cp(low) Cp(high)/ C/Cp(low)
process (low) Cp(low)
capability that is 10 1.88 1.27 2.26 1.37
accepted with 20 1.53 1.20 1.73 1.26
probability 1- 30 1.41 1.16 1.55 1.21
and Cp(low) is 40 1.34 1.14 1.46 1.18
defined as a 50 1.30 1.13 1.40 1.16
process 60 1.27 1.11 1.36 1.15
capability that is 70 1.25 1.10 1.33 1.14
likely to be
80 1.23 1.10 1.30 1.13
rejected with
90 1.21 1.10 1.28 1.12
probability 1-.
100 1.20 1.09 1.26 1.11
Example
A fabric producer has instructed a yarn supplier that, in order to
qualify for business with his company, the supplier must
demonstrate that his process capability exceeds Cp=1.33. Thus, the
supplier is interested in establishing a procedure to test the
hypothesis
H: Cp=1.33
HA: Cp>1.33
The supplier wants to be sure that if the process capability is below
1.33 there will be a high probability of detecting this (say, 0.90),
whereas if the process capability exceeds 1.66 there will be a high
probability of judging the process capable (again, say 0.90).
Then, Cp(low)=1.33, Cp(high)=1.66, and ==0.10.
Example (Continued)
Let us first find out the sample size n and the critical value C.

C p High 1.66
1.25
C p Low 1.33

Then, from table, we get, n=70 and

C
1.10, C C p Low 1.10 1.33 1.10 1.46
C p Low

To demonstrate capability, the supplier must take a sample of n=70

and the sample process capability ratio Cp must exceed C=1.46.
Note to Practical Application
This example shows that in order to demonstrate that the process
capability is at least equal to 1.33, the observed sample C p will have
to exceed 1.33 by a considerable amount. This illustrates that some
common industrial practices may be questionable statistically. For
example, it is a fairly common practice in industry to accept the
process as capable at the level C p 1.33 if the sample C p based on a
sample size of 30 n 50 . Clearly, this procedure does not account
for sampling variation in the estimate of , and larger values of
n and/or higher acceptable values of C p may be necessary in
practice.
Frequently Asked Questions & Answers
Frequently Asked Questions & Answers

Q1: Does process capability refer to the uniformity of the process?

A1: Yes.
Q2: State the two reasons for poor process capability.
A2: The two reasons for poor process capability are poor process centering and
excess process variability.
Q3: What is the advantage of probability plot over histogram in assessing process
capability?
A3: The probability plot requires relatively small data, while the histogram
requires relatively large data to assess process capability.
Q4: What are the measures of process capability?
A4: The measures of process capability are Cp, Cpu, Cpl, Cpk, Cpm, Cpmk.
Frequently Asked Questions & Answers
Q5: is it so that the higher is the process capability ratio the lower is the process
fall out?
A5: Yes
Q6: Can Cp and Cpk be negative?
A6: Cp cannot be negative, but Cpk can be negative.
Q7: What is the merit of Cpm over Cp or Cpmk over Cpk?
A7: Cp and Cpk are not the adequate measures of process centering, whereas Cpm
and Cpmk are known to be the adequate measures of process centering.
Q8: Is it required to check the normality character of a process before finding the
process capability?
A8: Yes, otherwise the capability of the process may be misinterpreted.
References
1. Montgomery, D. C., Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., Singapore, 2001.
Sources of Further Reading
1. Montgomery, D. C. and Runger, G. C., Applied Statistics and Probability for
Engineers, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Delhi, 2003.
2. Montgomery, D. C., Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., Singapore, 2001.
3. Grant, E. L. and Leavenworth, R. S., Statistical Quality Control, Tata McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited, New Delhi, 2000.