Steel Make-Up

Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Introductory INSPECTA

 Mechanical properties of a metal can be

altered by the application of various
mechanical and thermal treatments.
 Drastic changes will also occur if the
chemical composition is changed.
 Also, chemical composition will also have
an effect on its corrosion resistance and
weldability.
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Basic Metal
Structures INSPECTA

 Atoms are so small that they cannot be seen,

even with the most powerful microscopes.
 At certain temperature ranges, they tend to
form substances having specific shapes.
 This is because there are definite forces acting
between these individual atoms These forces
are in equilibrium.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Basic Metal INSPECTA

Structures
 'Home' positions.
 Interatomic Spacing.
 Below a metal's yield point, Elastic,
WHY?
 It was noted before that the metal atoms
exhibit a very specific spacing at a given
temperature, or internal energy.
 Expansion?
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Basic Metal INSPECTA

Structures
 Liquid metal has a higher internal energy
with greater interatomic spacing, and is
considered to be amorphous.
 There are several ways of reducing or
eliminating residual stresses.
 Stress relief.
 Vibration.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Crystal Structures INSPECTA

 In a solid metal, the atoms tend to align

themselves into orderly lines, rows, and layers
to form three dimensional crystalline structures.
 "Unit cell".
 Body-centered cubic (BCC),
 Face-centered cubic (FCC),
 Body centered tetragonal (BCT), and
 Hexagonal close-packed, (HCP).

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Solidification of Metals INSPECTA

 Nuclei.
 Then Grain.
 Mechanical properties can be dependent
upon the grain size of the metal.
 Effect varies with temperature.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Alloying INSPECTA

 The properties of metallic elements can be

altered by the addition of other elements, which
may or may not be metallic.
 Alloying elements are included in the base
metal lattice (the general arrangement of
individual atoms) in various ways depending
upon the relative sizes of the atoms.
 Smaller atoms, such as carbon, nitrogen and
hydrogen, tend to occupy sites be interstitial.
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Alloying INSPECTA

 Alloying elements with atoms close to the size

of those of the base metal tend to occupy
substitutional sites.
 Nearly all engineering metals are alloys
consisting of one major element and variable
amounts of one or more additional elements.
Alloys usually consist of many randomly
oriented grains with each grain arranged in a
specific way and containing one or more of the
characteristic phases that exist for the alloy.
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Microstructural
Constituents of INSPECTA

Carbon Steel
 The overall arrangement of grains, grain
boundaries, and phases present in a metallic
alloy is called its microstructure.
 This microstructure is affected by the
composition or alloy content, and by other
factors such as forming and heat treating
operations
 Iron and steels undergo changes in their
crystallographic arrangement as a result of
temperature changes.
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Microstructural
Constituents of INSPECTA

Carbon Steel
 This allows us to change the mechanical
properties of a specific alloy through he
application of various heat treatments.
 "Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram"
 Ferrite,
 Austenite,
 Cementite
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Microstructural
Constituents of INSPECTA

Carbon Steel
 Hypoeutectoid, eutectoid and hypereutectoid
types
 At 723 C, the horizontal line representing
transformation temperature is referred to as the
AC1
 Transformation will occur over a range of
temperatures with complete transformation
occurring only when the temperature is raised
above the sloping line designated as the A3.
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Microstructural
Constituents of INSPECTA

Carbon Steel
 Pearlite can only occur when sufficient time is
allowed for the atoms to diffuse into that
arrangement.
 Diffusion is simply the migration of the atoms
within the solid metal structure.
 When the cooling from the austenitic range
occurs more rapidly, there are significant
changes in this transformation for a given steel
alloy.
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Microstructural
Constituents of INSPECTA

Carbon Steel
 Upon rapid cooling, principal microstructures
produced include fine pearlite, bainite and
martensite.
 However, martensite has characteristically the
low ductility and toughness.
 To improve the ductility and toughness without
significantly decreasing the hardness and
tensile strength of the martensite, a process
referred to as tempering is employed.
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Microstructural
Constituents of INSPECTA

Carbon Steel
 TTT diagram, or Time-Temperature-
Transformation diagram. These are also
called isothermal transformation
diagrams (ITT).
 A similar diagram, the CCT, or
Continuous Cooling Transformation.
 Critical cooling Rate.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Heat Treatments INSPECTA

 The basic heat treatments include annealing,

normalizing, quenching, tempering, preheat,
post heat and thermal stress relief.
 Annealing is a softening treatment used to
increase the metal's ductility at the expense of
its strength.
 Metal is raised just into the austenitic range,

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Heat Treatments INSPECTA

 held for one our per inch of thickness or

a minimum of one hour,
 and then cooled very slowly.
 Normalizing also softens the metal, but
not as significantly as annealing.
 The only difference is cooling in still air.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Heat Treatments INSPECTA

 Quenching differs from annealing and

normalizing in that the resulting mechanical
properties show significantly increased
hardness and strength and decreased ductility.
 By immersing the part in a quenching medium,
such as water, oil or brine (salt water).
 To improve the ductility without significant
degradation of the metal's strength
characteristics, a tempering treatment is
usually performed.
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Heat Treatments INSPECTA

 Reheated to a temperature below the

lower transformation temperature,
 held for a short time to allow the highly
stressed martensitic structure to relax
somewhat, and then cooled.
 Preheat treatments.
 Thermal stress relief,

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Diffusion INSPECTA

 Atoms in the liquid state can move about

easily with respect to each other;
Increases with temperature.
 Major examples, Hydrogen
Embrittlement and Sensitization.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Solid Solubility INSPECTA

 Metals behave similar to sugar in water except

through diffusion, and they 'dissolve' into each
other when both are solid.
 Critical solubility limit is dependent on
temperature.
 Added carbon in the steel's surface makes the
surface much harder, and is useful for resisting
wear and abrasion. 'pack carburizing'.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Alloy Groups INSPECTA

 Steels can be divided into three subcategories: plain

carbon steels, low-alloy steels, and high alloy steels.
 Based on tonnage, plain carbon steels are the most
widely used.
 They contain primarily iron but also small additions of
carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur and silicon.
 Compositions of some of stainless steel types, which
are divided into five groups, austenitic, martensitic,
ferrite, precipitation hardening, and the duplex grades.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Alloying Elements-
Carbon INSPECTA

 is generally considered to be the most

important alloying element in steel (up to
2%)
 Most welded steels have less than 0.5%.
 Carbon can exist either dissolved in the
iron, or in a combined form such as iron
carbide (Fe3C).

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Carbon INSPECTA

 Increased amounts of carbon increase

hardness and tensile strength, as well as
response to heat treatment (harden
ability).
 On the other hand increased amounts of
carbon reduce weldability.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Sulfur INSPECTA

 Is usually an undesirable impurity in steel

rather than an alloying element. In amounts
exceeding 0.05% it tends to cause brittleness
and reduce weldability. Alloying additions of
sulfur in amounts from 0.10 to 0.30% will tend
to improve the machinability of a steel.
 Such types may be referred to as "resulfurized"
or "free-machining". (not intended for use
where welding is required).
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Phosphorus INSPECTA

 is generally considered to be an undesirable

impurity in steels. It is normally found in
amounts up to 0.04% in most carbon steels.
 In hardened steels, it may tend to cause
embitterment.
 In low-alloy high-strength steels, phosphorus
may be added in amounts up to 0.10% to
improve both strength and corrosion
resistance.
Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy
Silicon INSPECTA

 Usually only small amounts (0.20%) are

present in rolled steel when it is used as a
deoxidizer.
 In steel castings, 0.35 to 1.00% is commonly
present.
 Silicon dissolves in iron and tends to
strengthen it.
 Weld metal usually contains approximately
0.50% silicon as a deoxidizer.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Silicon INSPECTA

 Some filler metals may contain up to 1% to

provide enhanced cleaning the deoxidation for
welding on contaminated surfaces.
 When these filler metals are used for welding
of clean surfaces, the resulting weld metal
strength will be markedly increased:
 The resulting decrease in ductility could
present cracking problems in some situations.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Manganese INSPECTA

 Steels usually contain at least 0.30%

manganese because it acts in a threefold
manner:
 (1) assists in the deoxidation of the steel.
 (2) prevents the formation of iron sulfide
inclusions and
 (3) promotes greater strength by increasing the
hardenability of the steel. Amounts up to 1.5%
are found in carbon steels.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Chromium INSPECTA

 is a powerful alloying element in steel.

 It is added for two principle reasons; first, it
strongly increase the hardenability of steel, and
second, it markedly improves the corrosion
resistance of alloys in oxidizing media.
 But could cause excessive hardness and
cracking in, and adjacent to the weld.
 Stainless steels contain chromium in amounts
exceeding 12%.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Molybdenum INSPECTA

 This element is a strong carbide former and is

usually present in alloy steels in amounts less
than 1.0%.
 it is added to increase hardenability and
elevated temperature strength.
 It is added to the austenitic stainless steels to
improve pitting corrosion resistance.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Nickel INSPECTA

 Great
 is added to steels to increase their
hardenability.
 It performs well in this function because it often
improves the toughness and ductility of the
steel, even with the increased strength and
hardness.
 Nickel is frequently used to improve a steel's
toughness at low temperatures.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Aluminum INSPECTA

 Is added to steel in very small amounts

as a deoxidizer.
 It is also a grain refiner for improved
toughness; steels with moderate
aluminum additions are referred to as
having been made to a 'fine grain
practice'.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Vanadium INSPECTA

 Increases the hardenability of a steel.

 In amounts greater than 0.05%, there
may be a tendency for the steel to
become embitter during thermal stress
relief treatments.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

(Niobium (Columbium INSPECTA

 like vanadium, is generally considered to

increase the hardenability of a steel. However,
due to its strong affinity for carbon, it may
combine with carbon in the steel to result in an
overall decrease in hardenability.
 It is added to austenitic stainless steels as a
stabilizer to improve as-welded properties.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Dissolved Gases INSPECTA

 Hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

 All dissolve in molten steel and can embrittle
steel if not removed.
 Steel refining processes are designed to
eliminate as much of these gases as possible.
 Special fluxes or shielding gases are used to
prevent their solution in the molten weld metal.

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

Iron-Carbon Diagram INSPECTA

Temperature

C%

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy

TTT Diagram INSPECTA

Temperature

Time

Weld- Inspecta Co. Dr. Eng. Hamed A. Nagy