EXTENSIONS

of mendelian
inheritance
 Co-dominance
co means together
codominance the "recessive" & "dominant"
traits appear together in the
phenotype of hybrid organisms
means equal in dominance
alleles are approximately equal
effect in individuals; alleles are equally
detectable in individuals
phenotypes for both alleles are
exhibited in the heterozygote
 the hybrid shows neither of the
parents trait, instead, a third,
different phenotype

* With codominance, a cross between

organisms with two different phenotypes
produces offspring with a third phenotype in
which both of the parental traits appear together
Example 1:
red x white ---> red & white spotted
R = allele for red flowers
r = allele for white flowers
RR x rr
R R

Rr Rr
r

r Rr Rr
RR x WW ---> 100% RW
Example 2:
In cattle, roan coat color (mixed red and
white hairs) occurs in the heterozygous (Rr)
offspring of red (RR) and white (rr)
homozygotes.
 Incomplete Dominance
incomplete dominance a form of intermediate
inheritance in which one allele for a
specific trait is not completely
dominant over the other allele. This
results in a combined phenotype
can be explained adequately on the
basis of nonblending freely
segregating genes and the operations
of chance
Example 1:
In cross-pollination experiments between red
and white snapdragon plants, the resulting
offspring are pink (The dominant allele that
produces the red color is not completely
expressed over the recessive)

Red snapdragons X white snapdragons = pink!

 Multiple Alleles
multiple alleles more than two alleles control
the inheritance of a character
but an individual can only have two
alleles for a trait
locus (pl. loci) specific position or point in a
chromosome where a gene is
located
 The ABO blood system
This is a controlled by a tri-allelic gene
It can generate 6 genotypes

The alleles control the production of antigens on

the surface of the red blood cells
Two of the alleles are codominant to one
another and both are dominant over the third

Allele IA produces antigen A

Allele IB produces antigen B
Allele i produces no antigen
Blood types and transfusions
Blood types vary and your immune system
recognises your own blood type as being self
Other blood types are recognised as non-self
If a blood which is incompatible with your body
is transfused it will result in the agglutination of
the foreign red blood cells

antigens substance that stimulates production

of antibody
 Agglutination
agglutination the clumping together of red
blood cells or bacteria, usually in
response to a particular antibody
 Donor-recipient compatibility
Recipie
nt
Type A B AB O
A
Donor B
AB
O
Note:
Type O blood may be transfused into all the
= other types = the universal donor.
Agglutination
Type AB blood can receive blood from all
= Safe the other blood types = the universal
transfusion recipient.
2007 Paul Billiet ODWS
 Coat Colour in Rabbits

Four phenotypes and four alleles

Allelic series is C > cch > ch > c (which is most
dominant)
Phenotype Genotype
Coat Color CC, Ccch, Cch, Cc
Full Color cchcch, cchch, cchc
Chinchilla chch, chc
Himalayan cc
Albino
 Lethal Genes
lethal genes genes which become a cause for
death of individuals carrying them
Example 1:
In a cross of a yellow mouse with another
yellow, yellow and brown mice are obtained in
2:1 ratio. True breeding yellow mice never
obtained. In 1917, Stiegseder reported that
1/4th of the offspring die in embryonic condition
in such crosses.
 Yellow coat colour is dominant to grey
Mice that have YY (pure yellow) coat colour
do not survive
Example 2:
creeper in chicken embryo contains two copies
of the recessive gene
causes the legs to be short and stunted
dominant gene
Result: Embryo dies inside the eggshell embryo
dies inside the eggshell
Example 3:
manx cats allele interferes with normal spinal
development
pleiotropy a gene that affects more than one
phenotype
epistasis the interaction between two or more
genes to control a single phenotype
occurs when a gene at one locus alters
or influences the expression of a gene
at a second loci
 Multiple Genes
multiple genes also known as polygenic
inheritance
the phenotype of an individual is
determined not by one gene pair but by
several pairs
Sex-Related
Characters
sex chromosome a chromosome that
determines the sex of an
organism
Two types:
a. X chromosome has many genes and is
more like the other
chromosomes
b. Y chromosome has only few genes and
has a different shape
Females have two X chromosomes (XX)
Males have one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome (XY)
fertilization determines the sex of an organism
which greatly depends upon which
type of sperm fertilizes the egg
autosome other term for body chromosome

What happens if sex chromosomes are not

distributed equally to the gametes during division?
Sex chromosome number of the gametes may
be more or less than what it should be.
nondisjunction failure of the chromosomes to
separate
Example:
If:
one sperm cell = 22XY
another sperm cell = 22O
When:
* 22XY x 22X = 44XXY
TOTAL: 47
* 22O x 22X = 44XO
TOTAL: 45
 Three kinds of sex-related characters:
1. sex-linked traits
Thomas Hunt Morgan studied genetic variations
in drosophilia (fruit fly)
Legend:
W dominant gene for red eyes
w recessive gene for white eyes
O No gene partner for eye color

XW XW Female, pure red-eyed

XW YO Male, red eyed (W covers O)
 XW Xw Female, hybrid, red eyes (R dominant)
Xw YO Male, white eyed (O cannot cover w)
A.
Xw YO x XW XW
White-eyed male x Red-eyed female (pure)
XW Female XW
XW Xw X W Xw
Xw Female, red Female, red
XW YO XW YO
YO Male, red Male, red
Results:
All males are normal; red eyed.
All females appear red eyed because W is
dominant.
All females are carrier of white eye recessive
gene.
B.
XW YO x XW Xw
Red-eyed male x Red-eyed female (hybrid)
XW Female Xw
XW XW X W Xw
XW Female, red Female, red
XW YO Xw YO
YO Male, red Male, white
 Results:
One-half of the females are normal; pure red
eyed
One-half of the females appear red but are
carriers
One-half of the males are normal; red eyed
One-half of the males are white eyed
sex-linked genes genes which determined traits
unrelated to sex
sex-linked traits traits unrelated to sex
Examples:
a. Color blindness inability to distinguish
between red and green due
to a recessive allele of the gene
ability to discriminate between the
colors red and green is controlled by
the gene located in the X
chromosome
Can you see the hidden numbers?
Colourblindness Self Test:

NUMBERS: 5 | 8 | 9 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 9 | 10 |
 Hidden Shapes:

SHAPES:
Plate 1 - Circle and arch
Plate 2 - Circle, star and square
 Red-green colorblindness is a recessive sex-
linked trait, found on the X chromosome, not the
Y.
Males only have one X chromosome, they have a
much greater chance of having red-green
colorblindness.
Females would have to be homozygous recessive
in order to have red-green colorblindness.
b. Hypertrichosis Human Werewolf Syndrome:

Congenital generalized hypertrichosis (CGH)

Rare, X-linked dominant trait
Found in a single
multigenerational Mexican
family
c. hemophilia (bleeders disease) an inherited
disease in which the persons
blood does not clot easily, that is
why there is persistent bleeding
About one in 10,000 males is a
hemophiliac with impaired ability of
blood to clot
two common types: Hemophilia A,(
due to the absence of clotting factor IX)
and Hemophilia B (due to the absence
of clotting factor VIII)
 Hemophiliacs bleed externally after
an injury and also suffer internal
bleeding around joints
pedigree shows a marriage and the offspring
from that marriage
also known as genealogical chart
can be used to show genetic inheritance
use to track the occurrence of diseases
such as Huntingtons disease, Cystic
fibrosis, Tay-Sachs disease and
Phenylketonuria
The Symbols used:
Pedigree of Queen Victoria
Pedigree Analysis

Have you ever seen a family tree do you have one??

Graphic representation of family inheritance.

CONCLUSION:
Of Queen Victoria's 26 offspring, five
grandsons had hemophilia and four
granddaughters were carriers
Syndromes Due to Changes in Sex Chromosome
Number
Chromosome Characteristics of the
Number Person with the
Syndrome Syndrome

Female with three or

more X
chromosomes, tall,
thin, delayed
language
44XXX (47) d. Poly-X female development, those
with more than 3Xs
severely mentally
retarded, regular
menstruation, fertile
 Male, tall persistent
acne, with speech and
44XXY (47) e. Jacobs Syndrome reading problems,
below average
intelligence, fertile
No human can survive
44YO f. Lethal without an X
chromosome

g. Fragile X Syndrome X chromosome is nearly

broken
most often found in males
affects one in 1,500 males and
one in 2,500 females
as children, they are often
hyperactive or autistic with delayed
or repetitive speech
as adults, males usually have larger testes,
unusually protruding ears, and other
symptoms
About one-fifth of males with fragile X do
not show symptoms
Fragile X passes from a symptomless
male carrier to grandson
It has been traced to excessive repeats of
base triplet CGG (cytosine-guanine-guanine);
up to 230 copies compared to normal 6
to50 copies
2. sex-limited traits those that are expressed
exclusively in one sex of the
species
autosomal genes are found in both s
exes, but the trait is manifested only in
one sex for physiological or
anatomical reasons
the traits are generally associated
with primary or secondary sexual
characteristics, and thus are
expressed only in the gender which
utilizes those characteristics
 Examples:
a. male elephant seals grow big and fight,
while female seals grow small and avoid
fights
b. lactation is expressed in female cow but
never in males (but both sexes possess a
gene pair of lactation
Female Genotypes Female Phenotypes

XXLL Female lactating

XXLl Female lactating

XXll Female not lactating

Male Genotypes Male Phenotypes

XYLL Male not lactating

XYLl Male not lactating

XYll Male not lactating

 c. Cryptorchidism genetically determined
condition in which one or both
testicles fail to make the voyage
towards the inguinal canal to the
scrotum during fetal development
generally surgically corrected
very early, because not only is a
cryptorchid male sterile, but the
undescended testicles are at increased
risk for testicular cancer
 d. fanlike tail feather in peacocks vs.
peahens
e. horns found exclusively in males of
certain sheep species

Byarlea Wiltshire Horn Sheep Stud

 f. bright plumage of wire-tailed manakin
male vs. female
3. sex-influenced traits traits which are
expressed in both sexes but more
frequently in one than in the other sex
Examples:
a. pattern baldness sometimes called male
pattern baldness
gene is not on the X
chromosome but its expression of
dominance is affected by the sex of the
individual involved
Male Genotypes Male Phenotypes

XYBB Male bald

XYBb Male bald

XYbb Male nonbald

Female Genotypes Female Phenotypes

XXBB Female bald

XXBb Female nonbald

XXbb Female nonbald

b. harelip an old term for what is now called a
cleft lip
incomplete fusion of the upper lip
split in the lip at birth that looks
rather like the split in a hare's lip
occurs when a child's mouth does
not form correctly in the womb
c. gout disease characterized by an abnormal
metabolism of uric acid, resulting in an
excess of uric acid in the tissues and
blood
 Non-Mendelian Inheritance
albino lacks the pigment that brings color to
the skin and hair
mutations a permanent change in the DNA
sequence of a gene
occurs when a DNA gene is damaged
or changed in such a way as to alter
the genetic message carried by that gene
Two types:
a. somatic occurs in any body cell except
the reproductive cells
not passed on to the offspring
and will cease to exist when the
parent organism dies
 b. germ occurs in reproductive cells and is
transmitted t offspring
Causes:
1. High-energy radiation exposure to different
kinds of rays: cosmic rays,
radiation from radioactive elements,
X rays, gamma rays, beta particles and
ultraviolet rays
2. Chemicals as mutagens (agents of mutations)
among these are formaldehyde ,
nitrous acid, peroxide, mustard gas
and marijuana plants 61
 cannaninoids with its principal
component delta-9-THC (radioactive and
will take 5-8 days for just half of it in a single
marijuana cigarette from the body
3. Induced mutations one form comes from
recombinant DNA experiments
HUMAN
genetics
discontinuous traits traits which can easily be
distinguished
continuous traits not either or traits such as
those which Mendel observed
Example: human traits
blood type one human trait that has been
useful in the study of human
population genetics
Karl Landsteiner first discovered the blood
groups in 1900; Austrian
physician
 devised a technique for matching
human blood among individuals
without causing any ill effects
discovered four groups of human
blood
 Inheritance of Blood Types of Children
Blood Types of Parents Possible Blood Types of
Children
OxO O
OxA O, A
AxA O, A
OxB O, B
BxB O, B
AxB O, A, B, AB
O x AB A, B
A x AB A, B, AB
B x AB A, B, AB
AB x AB A, B, AB
blood typing popular in hospitals
Significance:
helpful in the delivery of health services
especially for hemorrhagic cases
can sometimes aid in paternity suits and

other legal cases

 Some Special Cases of Heredity
Inheritance of Human Traits
Tuberculosis bacterial disease and cannot be
inherited
having weak lungs is inherited
a. Diabetes a disorder in which there is no
control of blood sugar
Types:
a.1. Type 1 inadequate insulin production
usually develops in childhood
and requires lifelong injection
of insulin
 a.2. Type 2 decreased sensitivity to
insulin causing kidney, eye,
and nerve damage
typically develops in middle age
and can usually be controlled by diet
and drugs
has found to run in families and it is
thought to be caused primarily by a
dominant gene
recent developments say that it is either
inherited or not and has been theorized
that viruses may cause this
b. sickle-cell anemia derives its name from the
fact that blood cells in the
affected individuals are often
shaped like sickles and have a limited
ability to transport oxygen
cause by a change in one of the
polypeptides found in hemoglobin
(protein that carries oxygen in red
blood cells)
person inflicted is deprived of
oxygen (from fatigue, nervousness,
anxiety, etc.)
c. Huntington disease produced by a single
dominant allele (H)
people with this disease show no
symptoms until they are in their
thirties or forties
gradual damage to the nervous
system
Symptoms:
- painful progressive loss of muscle control
- loss of mental functions (until death)
d. Klinefelters Syndrome happens when an XY-
bearing sperm unites with an X-bearing egg
also known as sexually underdeveloped
males
Characteristics: male, tall, thin, long arms and
legs, large hands and feet, underdeveloped
testes, sperms are never produced, developed or
enlarged breasts, no facial hairs, slow learner
but not mentally retarded, sterile but not
impotent, fairly normal life with hormone
supplements
e. Downs Syndrome usually produced by
nondisjunction of chromosome 21
during oogenesis and sometimes during
spermatogenesis
individual has 47 chromosomes
also known as mongolism
almost all cases were found to occur
in children borne by women in their
forties
mongoloids affected children
show mental retardation and have a
shorter life expectancy
f. Turners Syndrome results in a female who
lacks sex chromosomes
Characteristics: Female, short, with broad but
flat chest, underdeveloped ovaries, oviducts
and uterus, low to normal intelligence, weak in
math and space perception, can live fairly
normal life hormone supplements
Genetic Formation of TWINS
Two types of twins:
a. fraternal two entirely different individuals
often a brother and a sister
develop from separate eggs that are
fertilized simultaneously by different
sperms
b. identical twins nearly the same person
duplicated
started life as a single, fertilized egg
 after the first division, the two cells
separated and started growth all
over again
Genetic Counseling
during which, the counselor studies the
background of a couple and tries to
determine if any immediate ancestor may
have had a genetic disease. Then he/she
studies the couple themselves
Common tests to identify metabolic errors:
a. carrier tests
b. blood tests
c. measurement of enzyme levels in blood or
skin cells
d. amniocentesis a test performed to
determine the health, sex, or genetic
constitution of a fetus by taking a sample
of amniotic fluid a needle inserted into
the womb of the mother
Applied
genetics
 Breeding Strategies
selecting parents with desirable traits
oldest and the surest method of
getting better traits in offspring
breeder develops purebred or
thoroughbred
Examples:
a. A farmer with a cow which has a trait of poor
milk production vs. cow with immunity to a
disease
 b. cattle producing approximately 64 glasses of
milk daily which requires little feed and care
vs. those producing one gallon daily
selection first method of breeding
means choosing and rejecting parents
with undesirable traits
Luther Burbank (1849-1926) perhaps the
worlds foremost selective
breeder
produced more than 250 new
varieties of fruit
inbreeding another breeding strategy
means mating closely related individuals
(e.g. sibling cattle)
purpose is to get offspring with pure traits
produces breeds such as German
shepherds, toy poodles and Great Danes
hybridization also known as cross breeding
another method of producing good
stocks
parents with differing traits are
crossed
cross between dissimilar individuals
Examples:
a. Mule hybrid resulting from a cross between a
male donkey and a female horse
have more endurance than horses and are
stronger than donkeys
 sterile and cannot reproduce
b. Corn plant to produce hybrids, pure breeds
will have to be obtained through
inbreeding
hybrid corn can produce as much as 10 times
the crop per acre of older varieties
Other Plant-Breeding Methods
1. Embryo Culture Technique entails cheaper
components of the standard
media and minimum transfer of culture
aimed to cut down on production
cost while at the same time
increasing plant production
applied to local products like
makapuno seedlings
2. Synthetic Seed Engineering man-made seeds
produced from stem cells grown and
cultured in the laboratory
can be produced year-round and in a
very little space
products of genetic engineering
(A)Encapsulated somatic
embryo (B) initial
stage of seed
germination (C)
germinated seed of
loda variety (D)
germinated seed of
china variety (E) plant
obtained from
synthetic seed and (F)
callus was observed
from somatic embryo
in seed bead
3. Gene-splicing techniques process of taking
genes from one organism and
splicing them into the genes of another
recombinant DNA is produced
in agriculture, allows breeders to
pick out the trait needed and
produce the desired results in a shorter
time
 Other Genetic Developments
1. Mutations use to produce new kinds of
organisms
Mutagenesis using mutagens
used with bacterial strains
Example: producing bacteria that can digest oil
to be used in cleaning up oil spills
2. Restriction enzymes specific DNA sequences
cut from genes by proteins
more than 75 different kinds are
known
3. DNA insertion DNA fragments containing the
desired gene are obtained and
then inserted into DNA that has been
removed from the recipient cell
4. DNA sequencing reading the DNA base
sequences along its length
5. Genetic engineering in bacteria and plants
when the gene used to code for a human
protein is properly inserted into bacteria,
the recombinant cells can be used to
produce large amounts of the protein
quickly and inexpensively
 Aims in plants:
a. produce plants that manufacture natural
insecticides
b. produce plants that contain genes that enable

them to produce their own nitrogen nutrients

(thus, no more need of fertilizers)
6. Genetic engineering in animals
successfully produced a variety of
transgenic insects, roundworms and
vertebrates
7. DNA fingerprinting used in criminal
investigation