Writing Abstracts

What is an Abstract?
An abstract is a concise summary of a body of
information should as a report, dissertation,
thesis or article.

Its purpose is to make it possible for potential

readers to quickly find out if the work is relevant
to their needs and worth reading. They're often
found at the front of dissertations, theses, or
journal articles.
 What is an Abstract?
Expressing yourself this way can be extremely challenging.
Summarising what can be a long period of research activity
in few words is a real skill, because it combines
communication, analysis, and above all understanding of
what youve done.

Your abstract should give the reader enough information

about your research to make them recognise its
significance and assess whether it is relevant to the
particular area they are researching.

It is important to consider the inclusion and use of

particular keywords in an abstract to ensure there is a very
quick way to identify relevant material in your work.
 Why we write Abstracts?
Abstracts are important parts of reports and research papers.
The abstract is often the last item that you write (as you will
have a clearer picture of all your findings and conclusions), but
the first thing people read when they want to have a quick
overview of the whole paper.

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most
important are selection and indexing.

Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work

to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also,
many online databases use abstracts to index larger works.

Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and

phrases that allow for easy searching.
 How is an Abstract different to
an Introduction?
Students are sometimes confused about the
difference between an abstract and an introduction.
In fact, they are different pieces of writing with
different aims and key parts. The following table will
briefly describe these differences in the case of a
research paper.
How is an abstract different to
an introduction?
 What makes a good
Abstract?
A good abstract:
Uses one well-developed paragraph that is
coherent and concise, and is able to stand
alone as a unit of information.

Covers all the essential academic elements of

the full-length paper, namely the background,
purpose, focus, methods, results and
conclusions.

Contains no information not included in the

paper.
 What makes a good
Abstract?
It is written in plain English and is understandable to a wider
audience, as well as to your discipline-specific audience.

Often uses passive structures in order to report on findings,

focusing on the issues rather than people.

Uses the language of the original paper, often in a more

simplified form for the more general reader.

Usually does not include any referencing

In publications such as journals, it is found at the beginning of

the text, while in academic assignments, it is placed on a
separate preliminary page.
 Descriptive Abstracts
A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in
the work.

These provide a description of the reports main topic and

purpose, together with an overview of the contents. They are
usually very short just a sentence or two and may even
appear on the title page (or at the beginning of a journal article).

All this type of abstract does is give a very general idea of what
the writing is about. Essentially, the descriptive abstract
describes the work being abstracted.

A descriptive abstract will look something like this:

The research analyzes the different approaches to reducing
traffic congestion in the UK and provides conclusions and
recommendations for future implementation
 Informative Abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or
evaluate a work, they do more than describe it.

A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself.

As the name implies, informative abstracts should inform the reader: they
should make clear what the research is about and give the key information
from each section of the report; indicate how it was carried out; and
summarise what the main findings and conclusions are.

The essential parts of an informative abstract are:

Background: A simple opening sentence or two placing the work in
context.
Aims: One or two sentences giving the purpose of the work.
Method(s): One or two sentences explaining what was done.
Results: One or two sentences indicating the main findings.
Conclusions: One sentence giving the most important consequence of
the work.
 The Abstract a general
guide
Re-read your paper for an overview. Then read each section and
condense the information in each down to 1-2 sentences.

Next read these sentences again to ensure that they cover the
major points in your paper.

Ensure you have written something for each of the key points
outlined.

Check the word length and further reduce your words if

necessary by cutting out unnecessary words or rewriting some
of the sentences into a single, more succinct sentence.

Edit for flow and expression.

 The Abstract a general
guide
When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the
followingkey process elementsin mind:
Reason for writing:
What is the importance of the research? Why
would a reader be interested in the larger work?
Problem:
What problem does this work attempt to solve?
What is the scope of the project? What is the main
argument/thesis/claim?
(2 sentences on the wider field context
and significance)
 The Abstract a general
guide
Methodology:
Specific models or approaches used in the larger study.
(2 sentences on the research method)

Results:
Includes specific data that indicates the results of the
project.
Implications:
What changes should be implemented as a result of
the findings of the work? How does this work add to
the body of knowledge on the topic?
(2 sentences on the results and conclusions)
 The Abstract an example
High speed electronic beam switching is a
desirable feature of smart antennas. Most
smart antennas are too large for most
applications and require significant power
during normal operations.
 The Abstract an example
High speed electronic beam switching is a
desirable feature of smart antennas. Most
smart antennas are too large for most
applications and require significant power
during normal operations. A thirteen element
switched parasitic antenna was optimised for
gain, speed and beam coverage.
 The Abstract an example
High speed electronic beam switching is a
desirable feature of smart antennas. Most
smart antennas are too large for most
applications and require significant power
during normal operations. A thirteen element
switched parasitic antenna was optimised for
gain, speed and beam coverage. Antenna
characteristics were determined at 1.8 GHz by
finite element modelling and measurements
on a prototype.
 The Abstract an example
High speed electronic beam switching is a
desirable feature of smart antennas. Most
smart antennas are too large for most
applications and require significant power
during normal operations. A thirteen element
switched parasitic antenna was optimised for
gain, speed and beam coverage. Antenna
characteristics were determined at 1.8 GHz
by finite element modelling and
measurements on a prototype. The antenna
had a gain of +9.8 dBi, a footprint of less than
one half wavelength squared and was
switched ion less than 100 ms.
 The Abstract an example
High speed electronic beam switching is a
desirable feature of smart antennas. Most smart
antennas are too large for most applications and
require significant power during normal
operations. A thirteen element switched parasitic
antenna was optimised for gain, speed and beam
coverage. Antenna characteristics were
determined at 1.8 GHz by finite element
modelling and measurements on a prototype. The
antenna had a gain of +9.8 dBi, a footprint of less
than one half wavelength squared and was
switched ion less than 100 ms. This is a better
performance compared to previous antennas.
 Scientific writing style
Dos and Donts
Past tense
Third person
Usually timing of events is not included unless it is
essential to data collection.
Sections and subsections (one level? two level? three
level?).
Quotes from other authors not common!
Do not commence with "this paper", "this report" or
similar. It is better to write about the research than about
the paper. Similarly, do not explain the sections or parts
of the paper.
Avoid sentences that end in "is described", "is
reported", "is analysed" or similar. These are simply too
vague to be informative.
 Scientific writing style
Dos and Donts
Do not begin sentences with "it is suggested that",
"it is believed that", "it is felt that" or similar. In
every case, the four words can be omitted without
damaging the essential message.
Do not write in the first person in any form. Thus,
not only should you avoid "I", but also "we", "the
author", "the writer" and so on. Again, this is
because the abstract should be about the research,
not about the act of writing.
Do not refer extensively to other works.
Do not add information not contained in the original
work.
Do not define terms.
Characteristics of Academic Writing
All statements are supported by evidence

All paragraphs have a single, developed, theme

All paragraphs begin with a theme sentence

The writing is in neutral (non-emotive) language,

without slang or jargon

The prose is concise, precise & efficient

The structure of the document makes logical

sense and adheres to disciplinary convention
 Lose the ambiguity
Good writing is unambiguous.

The reader should not have to make a

choice about what the writer may mean.

To avoid ambiguity use concrete, not

abstract, terms.
 For example

Abstract: This proposal will be an

investment in increased capacity in the
agencies that is critical to address current
issues facing the region that cannot be met
from existing appropriation. Additional
funding will be cost effective, leveraging
off existing research capabilities and strong
industry and community networks.
 Example continued
Concrete: Research into regional threats to
reef ecosystems caused by climate change
and pollution needs new government
funding. This funding will allow the
research agencies to make better use of
existing infrastructure and networks
including Great Barrier Reef monitoring
stations and international collaborations
such as the Census of Marine Life.
 Abstract writing can be
difficult to read
For example:
Affirming the significance though not the
truth of some of the most entrenched
assumptions about the realities of modern
political life, I develop a sceptical stance
about the possibility of understanding
world politics through the categories of
modern theories of international
relations.
 Ask yourself
Who is affirming?

What is the distinction between significance and

truth?
What are the most entrenched assumptions of
political life?
Why are these entrenched assumptions not
really realities?
What is an example of the difference between
the significance of these assumptions and the
truth of these assumptions?
 And more questions
Why is the writer sceptical?

Why cant world politics be understood?

What are the theories of international

relations?

Why is the author sceptical of the term

international relations?

Is it that the term is wrong, or the

relationship?
 10 Unanswered Questions
If those 10 points are unclear, how can I
understand what the author is saying?

If I cannot understand what the author is

saying, how can I be impressed with the
brilliance of the ideas?
 Outlining
Create a logical structure by preparing a
detailed outline.

An outline helps the academic writer

produce a large and complex document
like a thesis.
 Outline as Roadmap
The outline is a way of ensuring a logical and
complete structure.

The outline does not just name the elements

involved - it fleshes out the ideas.
This planning is needed to prepare a thesis that
is:
logically organised;

concise and;

straightforward to read.
 Include details

The more detailed the outline is, the more

useful it will be.

Each heading, sub-heading and sub-sub-

heading should have as much detail as you
need to prompt you when you write the
corresponding sentences and paragraphs.
 Methods for arranging

Write down all the points that you want to include

without regard to their order.

Some authors place these points onto post-it

notes that can easily be moved around on a large
surface.

Others outline on a computer, using the cut and

paste function to move items around.
 Get moving

Move the elements around until you have the

beginnings of a workable structure.

Create a document that features a hierarchy of

headings, an indication of how evidence is to be
used and theme sentences.
 Drafting
I propose four drafting stages, followed by
three editing stages.
You may need to vary the number of stages,
depending on factors such as whether you are
working with co-authors.
At some point you have to stop drafting and
move on to editing, and then to submission.
Only you can know exactly when that moment
is, but do not get stuck in drafting.
 Summarising the drafting
process
Outline the possible structure

Research, then refine your outline

Write, to fill in the outline (first draft)

Supplement the draft with precise information

(second draft)
Check for structural logic and restructure as required
(third draft)
Strip back: be concise and remove non-essential
verbiage and information (third draft)
Check for grammar, spelling, punctuation and
 A unit of thought
A paragraph discusses and elaborates a
particular point that you need for your
argument.

Most effective academic paragraphs will

contain between four and eight
sentences.

An academic paragraph should not

contain just one sentence.
 Not random
A well-written paragraph is not a random
collection of sentences; it is a unit of thought,
argument and/or evidence made up of a group
of related sentences that focus on one central
idea.

Each sentence contributes to the unity,

coherence and development of the paragraph.

These principles particularly apply to lengthy

and complex documents.
 Create an argument
The most effective way to ensure a
structure favourable to argumentation is
to employ theme sentences.

These capture the essence of each unit of

argument and show the reader what
knowledge you intend establishing.
 Theme sentences
The theme sentence indicates what the
entire paragraph is about.

This kind of sentence helps the writer to

work within a logical and clear framework
and it helps the reader to follow the
argument.

Your theme sentence is a signpost for the

reader.
 Be comprehensive
While a paragraph must not have more
than one main idea, that idea must be
fully explained.
Do not leave the reader with questions.

SO: all the sentences after the theme

sentence describe, illustrate and
exemplify the point introduced by the
theme sentence.
In doing this, you provide enough for the
 Sentence lengths
To guide your writing, aim for the following
lengths:
Theme sentence: 25 words or fewer

Subsequent sentences: between five and 50

words, with either extreme rare.
Concluding sentence: 25 words or fewer.

A well-written paragraph contains a pleasing

mixture of sentence lengths. Follow a short
sentence with a longer one. Diversity of
sentence lengths is easier to read.
 Example
THEME SENTENCE: The teeth of carnivorous and
herbivorous vertebrates are specialised for different
ways of life [14 words]. SUPPORT SEQUENCE 1: Those
of carnivores are adapted for capturing and subduing
prey and for feeding largely on meat. Dogs and cats,
for example, have long, sharp canines used for piercing
and molars and premolars equipped for cutting and
tearing.
SUPPORT SEQUENCE 2: By contrast, herbivores such
as cows and horses have teeth specialized for feeding
on tough plant material and breaking down the
indigestible cellulose in plant cell walls. Their molars
 This Example has:
A brief theme sentence that provides the
context;

Examples following the order established in

theme sentence (carnivores, then herbivores)

Links to indicate shift of argument to reader

(by contrast)

Emphasis of key words (carnivore, herbivore,

teeth) to help continuity.
 From old to new
Link logically by moving from established
information to new information.

Link back to earlier information, then

develop older information to make a new
point.
 For example
Humans experience the world in ways that are
detailed and complex. This complexity is partly
due to the information received through the
different senses. All five senses sight, hearing,
smell, touch and taste work continuously and
coherently in any individuals waking life. This
personalising of sensory experience is what
makes the outside material world distinctively
individual to each human.
 Editing paragraphs for critical
argument
Ask: What is the point of this paragraph?

If there is more than one point, put the other

points into their own paragraphs.
Ensure that the main point is indicated in the
theme sentence.
Ensure every sentence refers to the point in the
theme sentence.
Ensure that keywords are at the start of the
sentence (not authors or names).
 Begin with keywords

Starting sentences with a strong

keyword grabs the reader immediately.

Beginning with the name of a source is

less compelling and critical.

Work your sources into the paragraph in

a supporting role.
Three concepts to keep in mind

Unity: only one idea is discussed in each

paragraph.

Coherence: the paragraphs sentences

are arranged logically and connected by
linking devices.

Development: enough specific information

is given so that the idea is completely
understandable.
 Evaluate everything
Never let an unedited paragraph go
through to your supervisor.

Evaluate everything you write first.

Analyse every word, phrase, clause,

sentence and paragraph to assess it for
correctness of substance, language and
style.
 An example of editing:
original
Many different articles were read about
the molecular genetics of human growth
hormone. This paper will focus especially
on hGH deficiencies. Human growth
hormone (hGH) is a polypeptide hormone,
produced from within a gene cluster on
chromosome 17, that controls much of the
physical growth of the infant and child (1,
2). Since time is limited, this paper
cannot cover all possible aspects of hGH,
so a narrower approach has been taken.
 Editing example: rewritten
Human growth hormone (hGH), a polypeptide
hormone produced within a gene cluster on
chromosome 17, controls much of the physical
growth of the infant and child (I,2). Deficiency of
hGH, a heritable disorder, can result in infantile
dwarfism and retardation (3, 4, 5). New research
methods, including recombinant DNA technology,
have made it possible to determine the molecular
basis of such deficiencies. This paper summarises
current knowledge of the molecular genetics of
hGH and suggests ways that continued research
may help physicians treat infants with a deficiency
of this hormone.
 Ideal abstracts
The best abstracts are

self-contained

tightly written

concise summaries

.of the importance of your work, how you

went about it and how it fits into the broader
discipline.
 Not an introduction
Although it appears at the beginning, an
abstract is not an introduction.

The abstract sums up the whole thesis

crystallises your ideas into a brief and
concise form.
 Write early, rewrite often
An abstract is also an organising tool.

Use it as a means of keeping your work on

track.

Write your first abstract early in the

process maybe just after the literature
review and refer back to it frequently.

An abstract can be a good antidote to the

tendency of putting off the moment of
 The examiners guide
The abstract is the first thing that an
examiner reads.

The examiner will agree to examine the

thesis or not, depending on what he or she
thinks of the abstract.

The abstract is a way of selling the ideas in

the thesis.
 Craft your abstract
Take special care that it is concise and
perfectly correct in content and grammar.

Get someone you trust to check these things.

Ensure that it engages your readers and

makes them want to read further.
 Not a mystery
Logical: correctly reasoned and defensible on the grounds of
consistency.

Elegant: ingeniously simple and pleasing, as well as refined.

Do not hide the importance of your work, or the results of your work.

A thesis is not a detective novel.

Your abstract must highlight what is important, interesting and novel

about the thesis.
 A tool for identifying gaps
Gaps in the research and thinking become
evident when you try to write an abstract

. so it can help you to see what research is

still necessary.

In this sense, it is a critical thinking tool,

aiding clarity of thought.
 Two words: logical and
elegant

If you can make your abstract logical and elegant,

your thesis probably will exhibit these
characteristics too.

Logical: correctly reasoned and defensible on the

grounds of consistency.

Elegant: ingeniously simple and pleasing, as well

as refined.