CO3

Discuss and apply comprehensively the concepts, properties

and theorems of functions, limits, continuity and the
derivatives in determining the derivatives of algebraic
functions
 COVERAGE
Limits: Definition and Concepts
Theorems One-Sided Limits
Limits of Functions

Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity: Evaluation and Interpretation

Squeeze Theorem: Limits of Expression Involving Transcendental Functions

Continuity : Definition and Theorem

Types of Discontinuity;
Relationship between limits and
Discontinuity

The Derivative and Differentiability of a Function:

Definition and concept
Evaluation of the Derivative of a Function
based on Definition (Increment Method or
Four-Step Rule Method)

Derivatives of Algebraic Functions Using the Basic Theorems of Differentiation and the Chain Rule

Higher Order and Implicit Differentiation

Objective:

At the end of the discussion, the students

should be able to evaluate limits and determine
the derivative of a continuous algebraic function
given in the explicit or implicit form.
The Calculus
 Calculus
- Is the mathematics of change
- two basic branches: differential and integral
calculus
Lesson 1 : Functions and Limits
 FUNCTIONS

- A relation between variables x and y is a rule of

correspondence that assigns an element x from the Set A to
an element y of Set B.

- A function f from set A to set B is a rule of correspondence

that assigns to each element x in the set A exactly one
element y in the set B. It is a set of ordered pairs ( x, y) such
that no two pairs will have the same first element.
 Mapping of X- values into y-values ( 1 -1 correspendence)

1
2
2
4
3
6
4 8

5 10

X Y

Domain (set of all xs) Range (set of all ys)

Mapping illustrating many 1 correspondence

1
2
2
4
3
6
4 8
5 10

X = Set A Y = Set B
Domain Set Range Set
Mapping of the elements of Set A in to Set B illustrating 1 many type
of correspondence.

1
2
2
4
3
6
4 8
5 10

X = Set A Y = Set B
 Function Notation
We commonly name a function by letter with f the most
commonly used letter to refer to functions. However, a function
can be referred to by any letter.
y= f ( x) = x2
The function
called f f(x) defines a rule express in
terms of x as given by the right
The independent hand side expression.
variable, x

Note: The value of the function f(x) is determined by substituting x- value into
the expression.
 PIECEWISE DEFINED FUNCTION

A piecewise defined function is function defined by different

formulas on different parts of its domain; as in,

2x2 + 3 if x<0
f (x) =
5x-1 if x0

if
x x 0
g(x) = x =
-x if x< 0
 Graph of a Function
The graph of a function f consists of all points (x, y) whose
coordinates satisfy y = f(x), for all x in the domain of f. The set of
ordered pairs (x, y) may also be represented by (x, f(x)) since y = f(x).

Recall: The Vertical Line Test

A set of points in a coordinate plane is the graph of a function y

= f(x) if and only if no vertical line intersects the graph at more than
one point.
 ODD and EVEN FUNCTIONS

y= f (x)
A function is an even function if and only if
f (-x) = f (x).
The graph of an even function is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
y= f (x)
A function is an odd function if and only if
f (-x) = - f (x).
The graph of an odd function is
symmetric with respect to the origin.
 Sample Problems

For each of the following, determine the domain and range,

then sketch the graph.
3 if t< -4

a. f(x) = 3x- 5 e. f(x) = t+1 if -4 t 4
t if t> 4

b. f(x) = 1- x2 f. f(x) = x + 3x+1
2- x
c. f(x) = x g. f(x) =
x+ 3
x2 if x1
d. f(x) = x h. f(x) =
2x+1 if x>1
The composition function, denoted by f g , is defined as
f g= f(g(x))
with domain the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x) is
words, whenever both g(x) and
in the domain of f or in other
f(g(x)) are defined.

In the same way,
gf = g( f(x))
with domain as the set of all x in the domain of f such that f(x)
is in the domain of g, or, in other words, whenever both f(x)
and g(f(x)) are defined.

 Sample Problems
For each of the following pair of functions:

a) f(x) = 2x 5 and g(x) = x2 1

b) 2 and g(x) = x-1

f (x) =
x

determine the following functions:

a) f + g f - g c) fg d) f/g
b) e) g/f

f) f g, and gf
g) domain of each resulting functions.
 Limits

Informal Definition: If the values of f(x) can be made as

close as possible to some value L by taking the value of x
as close as possible, but not equal to, a, then we write

lim f (x) = L
xa

Read as the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L or

f(x) approaches L as x approaches a. This can also be
written as
f (x) L as x a.
 Formal Definition of a Limit of a Function:

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open

interval containing a , except possibly at the number a
itself. The limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L , written
as,

If given any
e > 0, however small, there exists a d > 0 such that
if
0 < | x - a | < d then | f(x) - L | < e .

Geometrically, this can be viewed as follows:

 Theorems on Limits
Theorem 1: Limit of a Constant
If c is a constant, then for any number a

Theorem 2: Limit of the Identify Function

Theorem 3: Limit of a Linear Function

If m and b are constants
lim(mx+ b) = ma+ b
xa
Theorem 4: Limit of the Sum or Difference of Functions
Theorem 5: Limit of the Product

Theorem 6: Limit of the nth Power of a function

If lim f(x)= L and n is any positive integer, then

xa
Theorem 7: Limit of a Quotient

f (x) lim f (x) L

lim = xa
= , M 0
xa g(x) limg(x) M
xa

Theorem 8: Limit of the nth Root of a Function

If n is a positive integer and lim f(x) = L ,
xa

then
 Sample Problems
Using the theorems on Limits, evaluate each of the following:

1. lim 4x3 - 5x+ 7 6. Let t- 2 t< 0

2
x0 g(t) = t 0 t 2
2t t> 2
2. find:

3.

4.

5.
 Definition of One-Sided Limits
Informal Definition:
If the value of f(x) can be made as close to L by taking the value of x
sufficiently close to a , but always greater than a , then
lim+ f (x) = L
xa

read as the limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right is L.

Similarly,
if the value of f(x) can be made as close to L by taking the value of x
sufficiently close to a , but always less than a , then

lim_ f (x) = L
xa

read as the limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the left is L.

If both statements are true and equal then lim f (x) = L.
xa
Geometrically,
 Infinite Limits

The expressions lim+ f (x) or lim- f (x)

xa xa

denote that the function increases/decreases without bound

as x approaches a from the right/ left and that f(x) has
infinite limit.

A function having infinite limit at a exhibits a vertical

asymptote at x = a.
Geometrically;

0
0

x=a
x=a
 Limits at Infinity

If as x increases/decreases without bound, the value of the

function f(x) gets closer and closer to L then
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L.
x x-

If L is finite, then limits at infinity is associated with the existence

of a horizontal asymptote at y = L.
Geometrically,
 Y=L

0
Y=L
0

lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = L

x+ x+
 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS USING THE SQUEEZE PRINCIPLE

The Squeeze Principle is used on limit problems where the usual

algebraic methods (factoring, conjugation, algebraic manipulation,
etc.) are not effective. However, it requires that you be able to
``squeeze'' your function in between two other ``simpler'' functions
whose limits are easily evaluated and equal. The use of the Squeeze
Principle requires accurate analysis, deft algebra skills, and careful
use of inequalities.

The Squeeze Theorem:

Assume that functions f, g, and h satisfy g(x) f(x) h(x)
and if lim g(x) = L = lim h(x)
xa xa

then lim f(x) = L

xa
Theorem:
sin x 1- cos x
a) lim =1 b) lim =0
x0 x x0 x
 Sample Problems

sin x cos2 2x
1. lim 6. lim
x 3 - 2x
x x
2 - cos x x+ 5 - 3
2. lim 7. lim
x x+3
x4 x- 4
1 1
3+ x - 3
8. lim
x0 x
sin x(1- cos x)
9. lim
x0 x2
1- tan x
10. limp
x sin x- cos x
4
 Sample Problems

x 1- cos 4x
11. lim 16. lim
x2+ x- 2 x0 1- cos 2 x

2 y- p
12. lim+ln(x2 -16) 17. limp
x4 y
2
cos y
7x3 - 2x2 + 4x- 9
13. lim
x x3 + 4x+ 2
3
5x 2
14. lim
x 4 x +1
15. lim ( 2 + 5ex )
x -
Lesson 2 : Continuity of Function
 DEFINITION: CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION

Definition:
A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x = c if and
only if the following conditions hold:
1. f (c) is defined
2. lim f (x) exists
xc

3. lim f (x) = f (c)

xc

If one or more of the above conditions fails to hold at c the function

is said to be discontinuous at c.
A function that is continuous on the entire real line is said to be
continuous everywhere.
If functions f and g are continuous functions at x = c, then
the following are true:

a. f + g is continuous at c
b. f g is continuous at c
c. fg is continuous at c
d. f/g is continuous at c provided g( c ) is not
zero.
 Types of Discontinuity

The figure above The figure above illustrates that the

illustrates that the function is discontinuous at x = c
function is discontinuous and violates the second
at x=c and violates the condition. This kind of discontinuity
first condition. is called jump discontinuity.
The figure above illustrates that the
limit coming from the right and left of
c are both undefined, thus the
function is discontinuous at x = c
and violates the second condition.
This kind of discontinuity is called
infinite discontinuity.
The figure above shows that the function is
defined at c and that the limit coming from
the right and left of c both exist thus the two
sided limit exist. However, f (c) lim f (x)
xc
Thus, the function is discontinuous at x = c,
violating the third condition.
This kind of discontinuity is called
removable discontinuity ( missing point).
 Sample Problems
1. Investigate the discontinuity of the function f defined. What type
of discontinuity is illustrated?



2
-1 <2
a)( ) =2 - +3 ( )
3
d. = 2 + 4 2 <6
2
-1 6

2
b)

x2 - 4
, x 2
fc)
(x) = x- 2
4, x= 2

Show the point(s) of discontinuity by sketching the graph of the

function .
2. Find values of the constants k and m, if possible, that will
make the function f(x) defined as

x 2
+5 x> 2
f (x) = m(x+1) + k -1 < x< 2
x -1
2x3
+ x+ 7
be continuous everywhere.
Lesson 3: The Derivative
 Derivative of a Function

The process of finding the derivative of a function is called

differentiation and the branch of calculus that deals with this
process is called differential calculus. Differentiation is an important
mathematical tool in physics, mechanics, economics and many
other disciplines that involve change and motion.
 y

tangent line
P( x1 , f ( x1 )) Q( x 2 , f ( x 2 ))

secant line

y y = f (x )

Consider: x
-Two distinct points P and Q
-Determine slope of the secant
x = x 2 - x1
line PQ
- Investigate how the slope x 2 = x1 + x
changes as Q approaches P.
- Determine the limit of the
secant line as Q approaches P.
DEFINITION:
Suppose that x 1 is in the domain of the function f, the tangent line to
the curve y = f (x) at the point P( x1 , f ( x1 )) is with equation
y - f ( x1 ) = m( x - x1 )

where m = lim f ( x1 + x) - f ( x1 ) provided the limit exists, and

x 0 x

P( x1 , f ( x1 )) is the point of tangency.

DEFINITION

The derivative of y = f (x) at point P on the curve is equal

to the slope of the tangent line at P, thus the derivative of
the function f with respect to x, given by dy
= f ' (,xat
) any
x in its domain is defined as: dx

dy y f ( x + x ) - f ( x )
= lim = lim
dx x 0 x x 0 x

provided the limit exists.

Note: A function is said to be differentiable at

x0 if the derivative
of y wrt x is defined xat0 .
 Other notations for the derivative of a function:
d
D x y , D x f ( x ), y ' , f ' , f ' ( x ), and f ( x)
dx
Note:
To find the slope of the tangent line to the curve at point P
means that we are to find the value of the derivative at that
point P.
 THE Derivative of a Function based on the Definition ( The four-step o
increment method)
To determine the derivative of a function based on the definition
(increment method or more commonly known as the four-step
rule) , the procedure is as follows:

STEP 1: Substitute x + xfor x and

y + y for y in y = f (x )

STEP 2: Subtract y = f(x) from the result of step 1 to

obtain y in terms of x and x.
STEP 3: Divide both sides of step 2 by x.
x
STEP 4: Find the limit of the expression resulting from step 3 as
approaches 0.
 Sample Problems
Find the derivative of each of the following functions based on the definition:
1. y= 2x3
1
2. y=
2x
3. y= 3x- 5

1
4. y=
3 - 2x

3
5. y= x - + 2x
2

x
 DERIVATIVE USING FORMULA

Finding the derivative of a function using the definition or the

increment-method (four-step rule) can be laborious and tedious
specially when the functions to be differentiated are complex. The
theorems on differentiation will enable us to calculate derivatives
more efficiently and hopefully will make calculus easy and
enjoyable.
 DIFFERENTIATION FORMULA
1. Derivative of a Constant
Theorem: The derivative of a constant function
d
is 0; that is, if c is any real number, then dx [c] = 0.
2. Derivative of a Constant Times a Function
Theorem: ( Constant Multiple Rule) If f is a
differentiable function at x and c is any real number, then
d d
cf
is also differentiable at x and cf ( x ) = c f ( x )
dx dx

3. Derivatives of Power Functions

Theorem: ( Power Rule)
If n is a positive integer, then d [ x n ] = nx n-1 .
dx
 DIFFERENTIATION FORMULA
4. Derivatives of Sums or Differences
Theorem: ( Sum or Difference Rule) If f and g are both
differentiable functions at x, then so are f+g and f-g , and
d
( f g ) = d ( f ) d ( g ) or d
f ( x) g ( x) =
d
f ( x)
d
g ( x)
dx dx dx dx dx dx

5. Derivative of a Product
Theorem: (The Product Rule) If f and g are both
differentiable functions at x, then so is the product f g , and
d
( f g ) = f dg + g df or
dx dx dx
d
f ( x) g ( x) = f ( x) d [ g ( x)] + g ( x) d f ( x)
dx dx dx
 DIFFERENTIATION FORMULA
6. Derivative of a Quotient
Theorem: (The Quotient Rule) If f and g are both
differentiable functions at x, and if g 0 then f is
differentiable at x and g

d
d f
g
df
-f
dg
d f ( x)
g ( x) f ( x ) - f ( x ) d g ( x )
dx dx = dx dx
=
dx g g2 or dx g ( x) g ( x) 2

7. Derivatives of Composition ( Chain Rule)

Theorem: (The Chain Rule) If g is differentiable at x and if f
is differentiable at g(x) , then the composition f g is
differentiable at x. Moreover, if y=f(g(x)) and u = g(x)
then y = f(u) and dy dy du
=
dx du dx
 DIFFERENTIATION FORMULA
8. Derivative of a Power
If u is a differentiable function of x and n is any
real number , then d un = n un-1 du

dx dx
9. Derivative of a Radical with index equal to 2
du
If u is a differentiable function of x, then d
dx
( )
u = dx
2 u

10. Derivative of a Radical with index other than 2

If n is any positive integer and u is a differentiable function of x,
then d 1
1
1
-1 du
u = u
n

n
dx n dx
 Implicit Differentiation

On occasions that a function F(x , y) = 0 can not be defined in the

explicit form y = f(x) then the implicit form F ( x , y) = 0 can be
used as basis in defining the derivative of y ( the dependent
variable) with respect to x ( the independent variable).

When differentiating F( x, y) = 0, consider that y is defined

implicitly in terms of x , then apply the chain rule. As a rule,
1. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.
2. Collect all terms involving dy/dx on the left side of the
equation and the rest of the terms on the other side.
3. Factor dy/dx out of the left member of the equation and solve
for dy/dx by dividing the equation by the coefficient of dy/dx.
 Higher Order Derivative
The notation dy/dx represent the first derivative of y with respect to x.
And if dy/dx is differentiable, then the derivative of dy/dx with respect
to x gives the second order derivative of y with respect to x and is
denoted by d 2y = d dy .
2

dx dx dx

Given:
y= f (x)
dy d
y' = = ( f (x)) first derivative of y wrt x
dx dx
d2 y d dy
y'' = = second derivative of y wrt x
dx2 dx dx
d3 y d d2 y
y'''= 3 = 2 third derivative of y wrt x
dx dx dx
. .
. .
In general,
( n) dny d dn-1 y
y = n
= th
n-1 n derivative of y wrt x
dx dx dx
 Sample Problems

Differentiate y with respect to x. Express dy/dx in simplest form.

1. y= x2 - 5 7. y= 4
9 - x2
5
x+ 5
2. y= ( 5x+ 3) ( 6 - 7x) 8. y= 2
x +2
2 x2 - 3x+1
( ( x + 3) )
5 2
3. y= 9. y= 2
+x
x
2 1
4. y= x - x + 4
3 3
10. y= 2+ 2+ x
4
5. y= x1 - 11. x2 + y2 = 9
x+ 3
6. y= ( 2 x3 + 5) ( x- 3) ( x+ 2 ) 12. xy = x2 y+1
 Sample Problems

Determine the derivative required:

x+ 5
1. y' of y=
x- 5
2. y''' of x2 + y2 = 9
d2 d 4
3. 2
dx
(x- 3)
dx
(x - 2x2
+ 5)

 References

Calculus, Early Transcendental Functions, by Larson and Edwards

Calculus, Early Transcendentals, by Anton, Bivens and Davis
University Calculus, Early Transcendentals 2nd ed, by Hass, Weir
and Thomas
Differential and Integral Calculus by Love and Rainville