Chapter 17

Lecture Outline*
Rod R. Seeley
Idaho State University
Trent D. Stephens
Idaho State University
Philip Tate
Phoenix College

*See PowerPoint Image Slides for all

figures and tables pre-inserted into
PowerPoint without notes.

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Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Chapter 17
Functional Organization of the
Endocrine System

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General Characteristics
of the Endocrine System
Glands that secrete chemical
signals (hormones) into
circulatory system
Hormone characteristics
Produced in small quantities
Secreted into intercellular
space
Transported some distance
in circulatory system
Acts on target tissues
elsewhere in body
Regulate activities of body
structures
Ligands: more general term for
chemical signals
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 Regulation of Activities: Comparison of
Endocrine and Nervous Systems
Endocrine: amplitude modulated signals.
Amount of hormone determines strength of
signal
Onset within minutes of secretion of
hormone
Nervous: frequency-modulated signals.
Frequency of action potentials produced by
neurons determines strength of signal.
Onset within milliseconds
Two systems actually inseparable
Nervous system secretes neurohormones
into circulatory system
Nervous system uses neurotransmitters and
neuromodulators as ligands
Some parts of endocrine system innervated
directly by nervous system
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 Intercellular Chemical Signals
Hormones: type of intercellular signal. Produced by cells
of endocrine glands, enter circulatory system, and affect
distant cells; e.g., estrogen
Autocrine: released by cells and have a local effect on
same cell type from which chemical signals released; e.g.,
prostaglandin
Paracrine: released by cells and affect other cell types
locally without being transported in blood; e.g.,
somatostatin
Pheromones: secreted into environment and modify
behavior and physiology; e.g., sex pheromones
Neurohormone: produced by neurons and function like
hormones; e.g., oxytocin
Neurotransmitter or neuromodulator: produced by
neurons and secreted into extracellular spaces by
presynaptic nerve terminals; travels short distances;
influences postsynaptic cells; e.g., acetylcholine. 17-5
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Examples of Hormone Chemical Structure

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 Control of Secretion Rate
Most hormones controlled by negative feedback
systems
Most hormones are not secreted at constant rate,
but their secretion is regulated by three different
methods
1. The action of a substance other than a hormone on an
endocrine gland.
2. Neural control of endocrine gland.
3. Control of secretory activity of one endocrine gland
by hormone or neurohormone secreted by another
endocrine gland

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1. Action of Substance Other Than
Hormone
An increased blood
glucose concentration
stimulates increased
insulin secretion from
the pancreas
Insulin increases glucose
uptake by tissues, which
decreases blood glucose
levels.
Autonomic nervous
system also influences
insulin secretion
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2. Nervous System Regulation
Stimuli such as stress or
exercise activate the
sympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic neurons stimulate
the release of epinephrine and
smaller amounts of
norepinephrine from the adrenal
medulla. Epinephrine and
norepinephrine prepare the
body to respond to stressful
conditions.
Once the stressful stimuli are
removed, less epinephrine is
released as a result of decreased
stimulation from the autonomic
nervous system.

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3. Hormonal Regulation

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 Positive Feedback

During the menstrual cycle, before

ovulation, small amounts of
estrogen are secreted from the
ovary.
Estrogen stimulates the release of
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) from the hypothalamus
and luteinizing hormone (LH)
from the anterior pituitary
GnRH also stimulates the release
of LH from the anterior pituitary
LH causes the release of additional
estrogen from the ovary. The
GnRH and LH levels in the blood
increase because of this positive-
feedback effect.

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Negative Feedback
During the menstrual cycle,
after ovulation, the ovary
begins to secrete
progesterone in response to
LH.
Progesterone inhibits the
release of GnRH from the
hypothalamus and LH from
the anterior pituitary.
Decreased GnRH release
from the hypothalamus
reduces LH secretion from
the anterior pituitary. GnRH
and LH levels in the blood
decrease because of this
negative-feedback effect.
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 Changes in Hormone Secretion
Through Time
a) Chronic hormone regulation.
Maintenance of relatively
constant concentration of
hormone. Thyroid hormone.

b) Acute hormone regulation.

Epinephrine in response to stress.

c) Cyclic hormone regulation.

Female reproductive hormones.
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 Transport and Distribution
Hormones dissolve in blood plasma and are transported in unbound or are reversibly
bound to plasma proteins.
Unbound hormones can diffuse from plasma into interstitial fluid and affect cells
As concentration of free hormone molecules increases, more hormone molecules
diffuse from capillaries into interstitial spaces to bind to target cells.
Lipid soluble hormones diffuse through capillary cells. Water soluble hormones diffuse
through pores in capillaries called fenestrae.
A large decrease in plasma protein concentration can result in loss of a hormone from
the blood because free hormones are rapidly eliminated from circulation through
kidney or liver.
Hormones are distributed quickly because they circulate in the blood.

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 Metabolism and Excretion
Half-life: The length of time it
takes for half a dose of
substance to be eliminated
from circulatory system
Long half-life: regulate
activities that remain at a
constant rate through time.
Usually lipid soluble and
travel in plasma attached to
proteins
Short half-life: water-soluble
hormones as proteins,
epinephrine, norepinephrine.
Have a rapid onset and short
duration

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Interaction of Hormones with
Their Target Tissues
Portion of molecule where
hormone binds is called
binding site.
If the molecule is a receptor
(like in a cell membrane) the
binding site is called a
receptor site
hormone/receptor site is
specific; e.g., epinephrine
cannot bind to the receptor
site for insulin.
The purpose of binding to
target tissue is to elicit a
response by the target cell.
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 Down-Regulation
Normally, receptor molecules are degraded and replaced on a
regular basis.
Down-regulation
Rate at which receptors are synthesized decreases in some cells after the
cells are exposed to a hormone.
Combination of hormones and receptors can increase the rate at which
receptor molecules are degraded. This combined form is taken into the cell
by phagocytosis and then broken down.
Tissues that exhibit down-
regulation are adapted to short-term
increases in hormone concentration.
Tissues that respond to hormones
maintained at constant levels
normally do not exhibit down-
regulation.

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 Up-Regulation
Some stimulus causes
increase in synthesis of
receptors for a hormone, thus
increases sensitivity to that
hormone
For example, FSH stimulation
of the ovary causes an
increase of LH receptors.
Ovarian cells are now more
sensitive to LH, even if the
concentration of LH does not
change. This causes ovulation.

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 Membrane-Bound Receptors
Receptor: integral proteins with receptor site at
extracellular surface. Interact with hormones that
cannot pass through the plasma membrane.
Hormones
Water-soluble or large-
molecular-weight
hormones. Attachment of
hormone causes
intracellular reaction.
Large proteins,
glycoproteins,
polypeptides; smaller
molecules like
epinephrine and
norepinephrine 17-26
Intracellular Receptors
Receptors: in the cytoplasm or
in the nucleus
Hormones
Lipid soluble and
relatively small molecules;
pass through the plasma
membrane
React either with enzymes
in the cytoplasm or with
DNA to cause transcription
and translation
Thyroid hormones,
testosterone, estrogen,
progesterone, aldosterone,
and cortisol

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Activation of G Proteins

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 Activation of G Proteins
Intracellular mediators: ions or molecules that enter cell
or are produced in cell
Can be produced because of G protein activation
Regulate intracellular enzyme activities

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G Proteins and Ca2+ Channels

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 Activation of G Proteins
Membrane-bound receptors for
glucagon are associated with G
proteins in liver cells
When glucagon binds to glucagon
receptors, the subunit of the G
proteins dissociates from the other
subunits and GTP binds to it
The subunit binds to adenylate
cyclase and activates it.
Resulting increase in cAMP activates
protein kinase enzymes, which
phosphorylate other specific
enzymes that break down glycogen
and release glucose from the liver
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cells
Activation of G Proteins

DAG causes
production of
prostaglandins, which
increase smooth
muscle contraction
IP3 causes increase of
Ca2+ in cytoplasm and
increases contraction
of smooth muscle
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 Receptors That Directly Alter the
Activity of Intracellular Enzymes
Cyclic guanine
monophosphate (cGMP)
produced intracellularly in
response to hormone
attaching to receptor
cGMP combine with and
activate specific enzymes in
cytoplasm.
Cell responds
E.g., atrial natriuretic
hormone attaches to plasma
membrane of kidney cells.
cGMP activates enzymes that
increase Na+ and water
excretion by kidney 17-35
Receptors That Directly Alter the
Activity of Intracellular Enzymes
Hormones bind to
membrane-bound
receptors.
Part of receptor protein on
inside of membrane acts
as an enzyme to
phosphorylate proteins
E.g., insulin receptors
bound to insulin cause
phosphorylation of
proteins and cell responds
to presence of insulin.
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Cascade Effect: Amplification

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 Intracellular Receptors
Proteins in cytoplasm or nucleus
Hormones bind with intracellular receptor and
receptor-hormone complex activate certain genes,
causes transcription of mRNA and translation.
These proteins (enzymes) produce the response of
the target cell to the hormone
Latent period of several hours because time is
required to produce mRNA and protein
Processes limited by breakdown of receptor-
hormone complex
Estrogen and testosterone produce different
proteins in cells that cause the differing secondary
sexual characteristics of females and males.
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