Intercultural

management seminar
Dr Rachid WAHABI
 Course outline:

Monday 26 december :
Introduction into intercultural management
. Intercultural communication
Tuesday 27 december :
Intercultural negotiation
Intercultural decision making
Wednesday 28 december :
Intercultural Leadership
Arab world Case studies
 Able to have :

A deeper understanding of the values,

Behavifile:///.file/id=6571367.20821556ours and attitudes of target countries, and

The impact on their work internationally; a

Framework from which to choose techniques for dealing with the cultural and business

issues faced in international work;

A greater ability to interact with people from other cultures both socially and in

business;

An action plan for modifying their work style to be more effective internationally.
 Objectives

To develop both intellectual understanding and

behavioral skills pertinent to the management problems
arising from the interaction of people from different
cultures in work settings:
To develop awareness of the pervasive and hidden
influence of culture on work behavior in particular, but
also organizational design and organizational change.
To develop behavioral skills to help you effectively deal
with the types of situations and issues one often is
confronted with when working internationally (for
example, in diverse teams).
 Culture
According to Geert HOFSTEDE:

"Culture Is The Collective Programming Of The Mind Which

Distinguishes The Members Of A Class Of Another Class

There are truths on this side of the

Pyrenees that are falsehoods on the

other Blaise Pascal
Intercultural Management
 Intercultural Management

We can define intercultural management as A

management that recognizes and takes into
account the cultural differences and attempts by
organizational and interpersonal actions, insert
them in the exercise of the functions of the
organization to improve its economic and social
performance.
It is therefore considered as a source of
competitive advantage that takes care of
reconciling the differences between regional
culture and business cultures.
 Cross Cultural Management seeks to:

Understand how national cultures affect management

practices;

Identify the similarities and differences across

cultures in various management practices and
organizational contexts;

Increase effectiveness in global management.

Dissect:
" Management is "the implementation and
coordination of functions and people who perform
these functions in order to achieve a given purpose
T.T. Paterson
Intercuturel:
The prefix "inter" of intercultural indicates a linking and
consideration of interactions between groups of individuals,
identities ".
 Intercultural Management

We can define intercultural management as a

management style that recognizes and takes into account
cultural differences and attempts by organizational and
interpersonal actions, insert in the exercise of functions
of the organization to improve its economic and social
performance ,
It is therefore considered as a source of competitive
advantage that takes care of reconciling the differences
between regional culture and business cultures.
 Why intercultural management?

Awareness of packaging by stereotypes

related to his personal history and culture,

Differences: political, sociological,

psychological

Forms of intercultural organizations

Multinational or international organization

Intercultural management theories

The three major authors have studied the

development of theories and tools for intercultural
management are:
Edward T.Hall high-context / low relation to
space and time
Geert Hofstede Scores on five cultural
dimensions,
Fons Trompenaars Analysis grids and concept
scales
Intercultural management in Arab World
Linguistic criterion:

According to this criterion, the Arab world is generally twenty-three

states, the Islamic Republic of Mauritania in the West , the Sultanate of

Oman to is that Arabic also has the status of official language. The

spread of the Arabic language is due largely to the expansion of Islam

from Arabia in the seventh Century

Religious criterion:

Division of the Muslim culture after the time of the expansion of Islam.
 Arab Management is guided by the following
strong organizational values:

Focus on performance excellence

aim to achieve planned performance and objectives in a way

that surpasses the expectations of those with an interest in
the organization.
Shared responsibility and personal accountability

collaborate to achieve joint objectives, keep our promises

and stand accountable for our every action.
Loyalty and team spirit

All employees are proud and meaningful members of our

enterprise where the respect each other and encourage all to
have a voice.
Innovation and continuous improvement

We focus our thinking and action on improvement and

renewal of current practices, systems and services to achieve
better results now and in the future.
 The negative traits of the Arab Personality

Tribalism and Nepotism

The Foreigner's complex

Conspiratorial Frame of Mind

Tendency to believe in the supernatural

Looking into the Future

Greet HOFSTEDE

Dutch (1928):
Professor of Anthropology
organizations and international
management at the University of
Limburg in Maastricht (Netherlands);
Director of the Institute for Research on
Intercultural Cooperation (IRIC) of the
University of Tilburg.
In Mechanical Engineering from the
Technical University of Delft;
PhD in Social Psychology from the
University of Groningen;
Professor and researcher in several
European institutions,
Other: sailor, worker, industrial
engineer, plant manager, personnel
manager.
 Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions

Conducted perhaps the most comprehensive study of how

values in the workplace are influenced by culture

Developed a model that identifies four primary

dimensions to assist in differentiating cultures:

1) Power distance
2) Uncertainty avoidance
3) Individualism
4) Masculinity
5) Long term orientation
6) Indulgence and restraint (added later)
 Power Distance

- The extent to which the less powerful members of institutions

and organizations within a country expect and accept that
power is distributed unequally.
 Power Distance
Low power distance
Inequalities among people
should be minimized
Interdependence between less
and more powerful people
Hierarchy in organizations
means an inequality of roles
Decentralization is popular
Narrow salary range
Subordinated expect to be
consulted
The ideal boss is a resourceful
democrat
Privileges and status are
disapproved
High power distance
Inequalities among people are both
expected and desired
Less powerful people should be
depended on the more powerful
Hierarchy in organizations reflects
the existential inequality
Centralization is popular
Wide salary range
Subordinated expect to be told what
to do
The ideal boss is a benevolent
autocrat or good father
Privileges and status are both
expected and popular
 Power Distance
Example
A company from Austria (low power distance) is
considering entering the Mexican (high power
distance) market
100
81
80

Power Distance Index

60

40

20 11
0
Austria Mexico
 Uncertainty Avoidance

The extent to which members of a society feel

threaten by uncertain or unknown situations.
Acceptance of the supposed causes or explanations
for a situation to avoid the discomfort associated
with the ambiguity or uncertainty.
Negotiators from high uncertainty avoidance
cultures are less comfortable with ambiguous
situations--want more certainty on details, etc.
 Uncertainty Avoidance
Uncertainty avoidance Uncertainty acceptance

Uncertainty is a threat Uncertainty is normal

More stress and anxiety

Less stress and anxiety

Different is dangerous
Different is curious

Rules are important

Fewer rules
 Uncertainty Avoidance

Example

A company from France (high uncertainty

avoidance) is considering investing in
Denmark (low uncertainty
100 avoidance)

Uncertainty Avoidance Index

86
80

60

40
23
20

0
France Denmark
 Individualism
The tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate
family and neglect the needs of society,
Low individualism
Individuals learn to think in
terms of we
High-context communication
Diplomas provide entry to
higher status groups
Relationship employer-
employee is perceived in moral
terms, like a family
Hiring and promotion decisions
take employees ingroup into
account
Management is management of
groups
Relationship prevails over task
High individualism
Individuals learn to think in
terms of I
Low-context communication
Diplomas increase economic
worth and/or self- respect
Relationship employer-
employee is a contract based on
mutual advantage
Hiring and promotion are
supposed to be based on skills
and rules only
Management is management of
individuals
Task prevails over relationship
Australia
US High
UK
Canada
France
Germany
Spain
Japan
Mexico
Italy
Korea
Low
Singapore
 Long- term orientation
A basic orientation towards time that values
patience
Long-term
Short- term orientation
orientation
Respect for traditions Adaptation of traditions to a
modern context
Little money available for Funds available for
investment investment
Quick results expected
Perseverance towards slow
Respect for social and status results
obligations regardless of cost Respect for social and status
Concern with possessing the obligations within limits
Truth Concern with respecting the
demands of Virtue
 Indulgence versus Restreint

The sixth and new dimension, added in our 2010 book, in a

collaboration between hofstede and Michael Minkov. It focuses
on aspects not covered by the other five dimensions, but known
from literature on happiness research.
Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively
free gratification of basic and natural human drives related
to enjoying life and having fun.

Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification

of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.
The 6th dimension in the world
Intercultural communication
 Cross cultural communication

Intercultural Communication is the process of sending and

receiving messages between people whose cultural background
could lead them to interpret verbal and non-verbal signs
differently.

GEERT HOFSTED
 The importance of intercultural
communication

Globalization

Technological Advancements

Multicultural Work Force

Business Opportunities
 CODES USED IN COMMUNICATION
Verbal Communication
Words
Voice
Non-Verbal Communication
Gestures
Postures
Facial Expressions
Eye Contact
Vocal Characteristics
Personal Appearance
Touch
 Verbal Communication Differences

Words
Voice

High Context Culture: Messages are often highly coded and implicit in
high-context societies, such as Japan and many Arab countries

Low Context Culture: The message is explicit and the speaker says
precisely what he or she means in low-context societies such as the United States and
Canada
 Verbal Style Major Interaction focus and content
variation
Indirect Implicit messages
Indirect vs. direct
Direct Explicit messages

Elaborate High quantity of talk

Succinct vs. Exacting Moderate amount of talk

elaborate
Succinct Low amount of talk

Contextual Focus is on the speaker and role relationships

Contextual vs.
personal Personal Focus is on the speaker and personal
relationships

Affective vs. Affective Language is process oriented and receiver

instrumental focused
Instrumental
Language is goal oriented and sender focused
 Non verbal Communication

The transfer of meaning through means such as body language and use of
physical space :

1) Kinesics
The study of communication through body movement and facial expression
Eye contact
Posture
Gestures
 Eye Contact

In some cultures, looking people in the eye is

assumed to indicate honesty and
straightforwardness; in others it is seen as
challenging and rude
 Gesture

Gesture assumes a language-like form, with structure at

word and sentence levels. However, when produced along

with speech, gesture assumes a different form - it becomes
imagistic and analog. Despite its form, the gesture that
accompanies speech also communicates. Trained coders
can glean substantive information from gesture -
information that is not always identical to that gleaned
from speech. Gesture can thus serve as a research tool,
shedding light on speakers' unspoken thoughts.
 Chromatics
we may not all see a color the same, within our cultural
group the emotional response to the color is surprisingly
common. While there are still commonalities in the
meanings of colors around the world, it may also differ
greatly between cultures.
 Perception of Space

The study of the way that people use physical space to convey messages :

Intimate distance is used for very confidential Communications

Personal distance is used for talking with family and close

friends.

Social distance is used to handle most business transactions.

Public distance is used when calling across the room or giving a

talk to a group.
Edward T. Hall
 Personal Space
The distance we keep between the person in front of us at an ATM,
the way we subdivide the area of an elevator
Intimate distance 18
Personal distance 18 to 4

Social distance 4 to 8
 Haptic

Haptic communication : is a form of nonverbal

communication and the way by which people communicate via
touching. Touch, or the haptic sense, is extremely important for
humans; as well as providing information about surfaces and
textures.
Person have been observed to have enormous difficulty surviving

if they do not possess a sense of touch, even if they retain sight and
hearing.
Perception of Time
 Monochronic time Polychronic time
Things are done in a linear People tend to do several
fashion. things at the same time.

Manager addresses Issue A People place higher value

first and then moves on to on personal involvement
Issue B than on getting things done
on time.
Time schedules are very
important and time is Schedules are
viewed as something that subordinated to personal
can be controlled and relationships
should be used wisely.
most common in southern and
eastern hemispheres
most common in the northern
and western hemispheres
 Silence

Silences that are golden, such as confident,

comfortable, reflective, peaceful, or respectful
silences. Such silences can be helpful tools for
enhancing the communication and to promote and
maintain the existing relationship
 Blocks to Cultural Communication

1. Ethnocentrism : Inability to accept another culture's world view; "my way is

the best.
2.Discrimination : Differential treatment of an individual due to minority
status; actual and perceived; e.g., "we just aren't equipped to serve people like
that."
3.Stereotyping : Generalizing about a person while ignoring presence of
individual difference; e.g., "she's like that because she's Asian all Asians are
nonverbal."

4.Cultural Blindness: Differences are ignored and one proceeds as though

differences did not exist; e.g., "there's no need to worry about a person's culture
5. Cultural Imposition: Belief
that everyone should conform to the majority; e.g., "we
know what's best for you, if you don't like it you can go elsewhere.
6. Tone Difference : Formal tone change becomes embarrassing and off-putting in
some cultures.
 Some theories on cross-cultural
communication

C U LT U R E C O N V E R G E N C E

C O MMUNIC ATIO N AC CO MMODATIO N

I N T E R C U LT U R A L A D A P TAT I O N

C O - C U LT U R E T H E O RY

D OUBLE-SWING THEORY

C O M M U N I C AT I O N A C C U LT U R AT I O N
1-Culture convergence
II-Communication accommodation

Socio- Communicator
Situational
psychological s
factors
context characteristics

Communication behavior/style

Convergence Divergence Maintenance

(decreasing (increasing (maintaining
communication communication communication
distance ) distance ) distance )
III-Intercultural adaptation
IV-Co-culture theory
 Sparation Accommodation Assimilation
Nonassertive -Avoiding -Increasing -Emphasizing
-Maintaining visibility commanalities
interpersonal -Dispelling -Developing
barriers stereotypes positive face
-Censoring self
-Averting
contoversy
assertive -Communicating -Communicating -Extensive
self self preparation
-Intragroup -Intragroup -Overcompensat-
networking networking ing
-Exemplying -Utilizing liaisons -Manipulating
strengths -Educating others stereotypes
-Embracing -Bargaining
stereotypes
Aggressive -Attacking -Confronting -Dissociating
-Sabotaging -Gaining -Mirroring
others advantage -Strategic
distancing
-Ridiculing self
 V-Double-Swing model

Conceptualizing how individuals, cultures,

and intercultural notions can meet in
constructive ways. The communication is
understood as an infinite process where both
parties change in the course of the
communicative or translational exchange.
Originated by Muneo Yoshikawa
 VI-Communication Acculturation

Separation: Integration: Assimilation:

Marginalization: Individual from
Individuals Cultural a non-dominant
values holding Low interest in integrity is group does not
onto their cultural maintained wish to maintain
their original
original culture maintenance while the culture and
and avoid and relationships individual actively
interaction with indiduals from participates in partcipates in
with other others cultures the larger social dominant
cultural groups network culture
Communication according to Hofstede:
High /Lower power distance
Individualism/Collectivism
Masculinity/Feminity
Low,high uncertainty avoidance
Short/long term orientation
Indulgence/Restraint
Communication according
to Trompenaars
Particularism/Universalism
Individualism/Communitarianism
Achievement/Ascription
Neutral /affective
Specific/Diffuse
External/Internal control
Past/Futur oriented
 Philippe d'Iribarne

Philippe d'Iribarne and his team "Management and Society"

multiply case studies from the 1980s with an anthropological
approach.
Culture is defined as a system of meaning, set of concepts that
allow individuals to make sense of their experiences.
Each country is marked by a permanent organizing principle
5 items:
3 countries (The Logic of Honor, 1989)
Then 20 countries (Cultures and Globalization, 1998)
4 of the Third World (The Third World succeeds, 2002)
A focus on France (The French strangeness, 2006)
And a general essay ("Thinking the diversity of the world", 2008)
 The culture of honor in France :

Relationships marked by activity and the quality of relationships at

the heart of efficiency
Predominance of personal relations on structures and procedures
Importance of informal arrangements and logic of "helping hand"
Rights and duties specific to each individual and each group or
department
Identity and individuality of each group
Sensitivity to the hierarchy and nobility
Operation with extensive guidance and strong autonomy
Managers = Arbitrators
Resistance to control
 The culture of consensus in the Netherlands

Respect individual
Seek consultation and the balance between actors
and groups
Priority given to group
Constant reference to objective data
Manager = facilitator and coach
 The contract culture in the United States

Relationships based on mutual commitment

Predominance of customer-supplier relationships
Focus on results
Sense of concrete details
Strong Control
Force procedures and rules
Importance of evidence, objectivity and
quantification (arbitrary hatred)
Manager = example
Halls cultural factors
 HIGH CONTEXT (HC)
Relationships depend on trust,
build up slowly, are stable. One
distinguishes between people inside
and people outside one's circle.
How things get done depends on
relationships with people and
attention to group process.
One's identity is rooted in
Associatio groups (family, culture, work).
n
Social structure and authority are
centralized; responsibility is at
the top. Person at top works for the
good of the group
LOW CONTEXT (LC)
Relationships begin and
end quickly. Many people can be
inside one's circle; circle's
boundary is not clear.
Things get done by following
procedures and paying attention
to the goal.
One's identity is rooted in oneself
and one's accomplishments.
Social structure is decentralized;
responsibility goes further down
(is not concentrated at the top).
 HIGH CONTEXT (HC)
High use of nonverbal elements; voice
tone, facial expression, gestures, and
eye movement carry significant parts of
conversation.
Verbal message is implicit;
context (situation, people, nonverbal
elements) is more important than
words.
Verbal message is indirect; one
talks around the point and embellishes
it.
Interactio Communication is seen as an art form
n a way of engaging
someone.
Disagreement is personalized. One is
sensitive to conflict expressed
in another's nonverbal communication.
Conflict either must be solved before
work can progress or must be avoided
because it is personally threatening.
LOW CONTEXT (LC)
Low use of nonverbal
elements. Message is carried
more by words than by
nonverbal means.
Verbal message is explicit.
Context is less important than
words.
Verbal message is direct; one
spells things out exactly.
Communication is seen as a
way of exchanging information,
ideas, and opinions.
Disagreement is
depersonalized. One withdraws
from conflict with another and
gets on with the task. Focus is
on rational solutions, not
personal ones. One can be
explicit about another's
bothersome behavior
 Space is communal; people Space is compartmentalized
Territoriality stand close to each other, share the and privately owned; privacy
same space. isimportant, so people are
farther apart.

Everything has its own time. Things are scheduled to be

Time is not easily scheduled; needs done at particular times, one
of people may interfere with keeping thing at a time. What is
to a set time. What is important is important is that activity is
that activity gets done. done efficiently.

Change is slow. Things are rooted Change is fast. One can make
Temporality in the past, slow to change, and change and see immediate
stable. results.

Time is a process; it belongs to Time is a commodity to be

others and to nature. spent or saved. Ones time is
ones own.
 Knowledge is embedded in
the situation; things are
connected, synthesized, and global.
Multiple sources of information are
used. Thinking is deductive, proceeds
from general to specific.
Learning occurs by first
observing others as they model or
demonstrate and then practicing.
Groups are preferred for learning and
Learning problem solving.
Accuracy is valued. How well something An individual orientation is
is learned is important.
Reality is fragmented and
compartmentalized. One source
of information is used to
develop knowledge.
Thinking is inductive, proceeds
from specific to general. Focus
is on detail.
Learning occurs by following
explicit directions and
explanations of others.
preferred for learning and
problem solving.
Speed is valued. How
efficiently something is learned
is important.
 Time
Monochronic
Factor Polychronic action
action
Actions do one thing at a time do many things at once

Concentrate on the job at

Focus Are easily distracted
hand

Think about when things Think about what will be

Attention to time
must be achieved achieved

Priority Put the job first Put relationships first

Seldom borrow or lend Borrow and lend things

Respect for property
things often and easily

base promptness
Timeliness Emphasize promptness
relationship factors
 Space
High territoriality
Some people are more territorial than others
with greater concern for ownership. They seek
to mark out the areas which are theirs and
perhaps having boundary wars with neighbors.
This happens right down to desk-level, where
co-workers may do battle over a piece of paper
which overlaps from one person's area to
another. At national level, many wars have been
fought over boundaries.
Territoriality also extends to anything that is
'mine' and ownership concerns extend to
material things. Security thus becomes a subject
of great concern for people with a high need for
ownership.
People high territoriality tend also to be low
context.
Low territoriality
People with lower territoriality have
less ownership of space and
boundaries are less important to
them. They will share territory and
ownership with little thought.
They also have less concern for
material ownership and their sense of
'stealing' is less developed (this is
more important for highly territorial
people).
People with low territoriality tend
also to be high context.
Shalom Schwartzs
dimensions
Autonomy VS Embeddedness
In autonomy cultures, people are
viewed as autonomous, bounded
entities. They should cultivate and
express their own preferences,
feelings, ideas, and abilities, and
find meaning in their own
uniqueness. There are two types of
autonomy: Intellectual autonomy
encourages individuals to pursue
their own ideas and intellectual
directions independently. Examples
of important values in such cultures
include broadmindedness, curiosity,
and creativity. Affective autonomy
encourages individuals to pursue
affectively positive experience for
themselves. Important values
include pleasure, exciting life, and
varied life
In cultures with an emphasis
on embeddedness, people are
viewed as entities embedded in
the collectivity. Meaning in life
comes largely through social
relationships, through
identifying with the group,
participating in its shared way
of life, and striving toward its
shared goals.
Embedded cultures emphasize
maintaining the status quo and
restraining actions that might
disrupt in-group solidarity or
the traditional order.
Important values in such
cultures are social order,
respect for tradition,security,
obedience, and wisdom.
 Egalitarism VS hierarchy
people must engage in the productive work necessary to maintain
society rather than compete destructively or withhold their efforts.
People must be induced to consider the welfare of others, to
coordinate with them, and thereby manage their unavoidable
interdependencies. The polar solution labeled cultural egalitarianism
egalitarianis
seeks to induce people to recognize one another
m
as moral equals who share basic interests as human beings. People are
socialized to internalize a commitment to cooperate and to feel
concern for everyones welfare. They are expected to act for the benefit
of other as a matter of choice. Important values in such cultures
include equality, social justice, responsibility, help, and honesty.
The polar alternative labeled cultural hierarchy relies on hierarchical
systems of ascribed roles to insure responsible, productive behavior.
It defines the unequal distribution of power, roles, and resources as
legitimate. People are socialized to take the hierarchical distribution of
hierarchy
roles for granted and to comply with the obligations and rules
attached to their roles. Values like social power, authority, humility,
and wealth are highly important in hierarchical cultures
The Baconian method is the investigative method
developed by Sir Francis Bacon. The method was put
forward in Bacon's book Novum Organum (1620), or
'New Method', and was supposed to replace the
methods put forward in Aristotle'sOrganon.
 Inductive reasoning

Bacon suggests that you draw up a list of all things in

which the phenomenon you are trying to explain
occurs, as well as a list of things in which it does not
occur. Then you rank your lists according to the
degree in which the phenomenon occurs in each one.
Then you should be able to deduce what factors
match the occurrence of the phenomenon in one list
and don't occur in the other list, and also what
factors change in accordance with the way the data
had been ranked.
 Idols of the mind

Idols of the Tribe (Idola tribus): This is humans' tendency to

perceive more order and regularity in systems than truly exists, and
is due to people following their preconceived ideas about things.

Idols of the Cave (Idola specus): This is due to individuals' personal

weaknesses in reasoning due to particular personalities, likes and
dislikes.

Idols of the Marketplace (Idola fori): This is due to confusions in

the use of language and taking some words in science to have a
different meaning than their common usage.

Idols of the Theatre (Idola theatri): This is the following of

academic dogma and not asking questions about the world.
 What is negotiation ?
91

Negotiation is a process where two parties with

differences which they need :
to resolve and try to reach agreement through
exploring for options and
exchanging offers and agreements.

Ray fells, author of Effective Negotiation

 The types of negotiation

Distributive negotiation

Distributive negotiation, also known as positional

negotiating, negotiating zero-sum, competitive
negotiation, or win-lose negotiation, is a type or
style of negotiation in which the parties compete
for the distribution of a fixed amount of value.
 Distributive negotiation tactics
Dont share information
Let them make the first offer
Tell them about competing offers
 Integrative negotiation

The integrative negotiation, also known as principled

negotiation, cooperative bargaining or negotiation
win-win, is a type or style of negotiation in which the
parties cooperate to achieve a satisfactory result for
both.
Integrative negotiation tactics
Determine your list of priorities
Share information with each other
Find and offer solutions that produce the most
gain for the other party as well as for yourself
 Cross-Cultural Negotiation Variables

96

Culture

Goals
National/corporate
Principles versus specific details

Negotiating styles
objective/subjective/axiomatic Trust level
Task versus
Negotiating behavior
interpersonal and
defense/attack/trust
relationships deception/pressure/concessions
duration
Verbal and nonverbal behavior relations
Attitudes toward time/scheduling

Composition of teams
Level of preparation

Culture
 3-Negotiation Styles

For North Americans, negotiations are businesslike;

their factual appeals are based on what they
believe is objective information, and understood by
the other side on a logical basis.

Arabs use affective appeals based on emotions

and subjective feelings.

Russians employ axiomatic appeals that is, their

appeals are based on the ideals generally accepted in
their society.
 Profile of a Successful American Negotiator

Knows when to compromise

Takes a firm stand at the beginning of the negotiation
Refuses to make concessions beforehand
Keeps his or her cards close to his or her chest
Accepts compromises only when the negotiation is
deadlocked
Sets up the general principles and delegates the detail
work to associates
Keeps a maximum of options open before negotiation
Operates in good faith
Profile of a Successful American Negotiator

Respects the opponents

States his or her position as clearly as possible
Knows when he or she wishes a negotiation to move
on
Is fully briefed about the negotiated issues
Has a good sense of timing and is consistent
Makes the other party reveal his or her position
while keeping his or her own position hidden as long
as possible
Lets the other negotiator come forward first and
looks for the best deal
 Profile of a Successful Indian Negotiator

Looks for and says the truth

Is not afraid of speaking up and has no fears
Exercises self-control
Seeks solutions that will please all the parties involved
Respects the other party
Neither uses violence nor insults
Is ready to change his or her mind and differ with himself
or herself at the risk of being seen as inconsistent and
unpredictable
 Profile of a Successful Indian Negotiator

Puts things into perspective and switches easily from the small picture
to the big one
Is humble and trusts the opponent
Is able to withdraw, use silence, and learn from within
Relies on himself or herself, his or her own resources and strengths
Appeals to the other partys spiritual identity
Is tenacious, patient, and persistent
Learns from the opponent and avoids the use of secrets
Goes beyond logical reasoning and trusts his or her instinct as well as
faith
 Profile of a Successful Arab Negotiator

Protects all the parties honor, self-respect, and dignity

Avoids direct confrontation between opponents
Is respected and trusted by all
Does not put the parties involved in a situation where they
have to show weakness or admit defeat
Has the necessary prestige to be listened to
Is creative enough to come up with honorable solutions for
all parties
Is impartial and can understand the positions of the various
parties without leaning toward one or the other
 Profile of a Successful Arab Negotiator

Is able to resist any kind of pressure that the opponents could try to
exercise on him
Uses references to people who are highly respected by the opponents to
persuade them to change their minds on some issues
Can keep secrets and in so doing gains the confidence of the negotiating
parties
Controls his temper and emotions
Can use conference as mediating devices
Knows that the opponent will have problems in carrying out the
decisions made during the negotiation
Is able to cope with the Arab disregard for time
 Profile of a Successful Swedish Negotiator

Very quiet and thoughtful

Punctual (concerned with time)
Extremely polite
Straightforward (they get straight down to business)
Eager to be productive and efficient
Heavy-going
Down-to-earth and overcautious
Rather flexible
Able to and quite good at holding emotions and feelings
 Profile of a Successful Swedish Negotiator
(contd.)

Slow at reacting to new (unexpected) proposals

Informal and familiar
Conceited
Perfectionist
Afraid of confrontations
Very private
 Profile of a Successful Italian Negotiator

Has a sense of drama (acting is a main part of the culture)

Does not hide his or her emotions (which are partly sincere and partly
feigned)
Reads facial expressions and gestures very well
Has a feeling for history
Does not trust anybody
Is concerned about the bella figura, or the good impression, he or she
can create among those who watch his or her behavior
Believes in the individuals initiatives, not so much in teamwork
Is good at being obliging and simpatico at all times
 Profile of a Successful Italian Negotiator

Is always on the qui vive, the lookout

Never embraces definite opinions
Is able to come up with new ways to immobilize and eventually destroy
his or her opponents
Handles confrontation of power with subtlety and tact
Has a flair for intrigue
Knows how to use flattery
Can involve other negotiators in complex combinations
 1. identify the objectives negotiators would like
to attain and explore the possible options for
Planning reaching these objectives
Planning
2. Set limits on single-point objectives
3. Divide issues into short- and long-term
considerations and decide how to handle each
4. Determine the sequence in which to discuss
the various issues
 Get to know the people on the other side
Feeling out period is characterized by
the desire to identify those who are
Planning
Planning reasonable and those who are not

Impersonal
Impersonal
Relationship
Relationship
Building
Building
Planning
Planning

Each group sets forth its position on the

critical issues
These positions often change later in the
Impersonal
Impersonal negotiations
Relationship
Relationship
Building
Participants try to find out what the other
Building
party wants to attain and what it is willing to
give up

Exchanging
ExchangingTask-
Task-
Related
RelatedInformation
Information
 Success of the persuasion step depends on
Planning
Planning
How well the parties understand each others
position
The ability of each to identify areas of
similarity and differences
The ability to create new options
The willingness to work toward a mutually
Impersonal
Impersonal acceptable solution
Relationship
Relationship
Building
Building

Exchanging
ExchangingTask-
Task- Persuasion
Persuasion
Related
RelatedInformation
Information
 Grant concessions and hammer out a final
Planning
Planning agreement
This phase may be carried out piecemeal, and
concessions and agreements may be made on
issues one at a time.

Impersonal
Impersonal
Relationship
Relationship
Building
Building

Exchanging
Exchanging
Task-Related Agreement
Agreement
Task-Related Persuasion
Persuasion
Information
Information
Negotiation and 6 dimensions of Hoofstede
Individualism/Collectivism
High/low uncertainty avoidance
High,low power distance
Masculinity/Feminity
Long term/short term orientation
Intercultural decision making
 Decision making

Stages in the Rational Decision Making Model

Defining the problem
Gathering and analyzing relevant data

Considering alternative solutions

Deciding on the best solution

Implementing the decision

120
Cultural Variables Affecting Decision-Making
121

Objective (basing decisions on rationality) versus subjective

(basing decisions on emotions) approach
Risk tolerance
Locus of control internal (managers in control of events),
or external (managers have little control over events)
Cultural Variables in the Decision-Making Process
(Exhibit 5-11)

122

Culture

Individualism/collectivism Utilitarianism/moral ideals

Locus of decision making

Risk tolerance Past/future

orientation

Problem Data Consideration of Decision Implementation

Definition gathering alternative solutions

Objective/subjective Internal/external
perspective locus of control
Comparative management in focus: Decision making in japan

Ringi system: time to decide vs. time to implement

123
 Managing conflict
124

Conflict is where one party perceives that another party

acting purposefully in a way that upsets the first party or
blocks its pursue of goals and interests
Why can't the Jews and the Arabs just sit down together
and settle this conflict ?
- Attributed to Arthur Balfour, 19th century British
statesman, Prime Minister, and Foreign Secretary;
speaking on the Middle-east Crisis
125
CASE STUDY :
SOME
EXAMPLES
 What about The Arab World?

If we explore the Arab culture (based on scores for

Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi
Arabia) through the lens of the 5-D Model, we can
get a good overview of the deep drivers of the
Arab culture relative to other world cultures.
 Power Distance Index (PDI) .

This dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal it expresses
the attitude of the culture towards these inequalities amongst us.
Power distance is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and
organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.
Power distance: High in the Arabs countries

The Arab world scores high on this dimension (score of 80) which means that
people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which
needs no further justification. Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting
inherent inequalities, centralization is popular, subordinates expect to be told
what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat.
 Individualism (IDV) / collectivism

The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension

is the degree of interdependence a society
maintains among its members. It has to do with
whether peoples self-image is defined in terms
of I or We.
Collectivism: Arabs
countries

The Arab culture, with a score of 38 is considered a collectivistic society. This is manifest in a
close long-term commitment to the member 'group', be that a family, extended family, or
extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount, and over-rides most other
societal rules and regulations. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes
responsibility for fellow members of their group. In collectivist societies offence leads to
shame and loss of face, employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms (like a
family link), hiring and promotion decisions take account of the employees in-group,
management is the management of groups.
 Masculinity (MAS)/ femininity

A high score (masculine) on this dimension indicates that the society will be driven by

competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner / best in field
a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organizational behavior.
The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (masculine) or
liking what you do (feminine).
Masculinity: Arabs countries

The Arab world scores 52 on this dimension and is thus a masculine society. In masculine

countries people live in order to work, managers are expected to be decisive and assertive, the
emphasis is on equity, competition and performance.
Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

The dimension Uncertainty Avoidance has to do with the way that a society deals
with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future
or just let it happen? This ambiguity brings with it anxiety and different cultures have
learnt to deal with this anxiety in different ways.
Uncertainty Avoidance : High in Arabs countries

The Arab culture scores 68 on this dimension and thus has a high preference for

avoiding uncertainty. Countries exhibiting high uncertainty avoidance maintain

rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour

and ideas. In these cultures there is an emotional need for rules time is money,

people have an inner urge to be busy and work hard, precision and punctuality

are the norm, innovation may be resisted, security is an important element in

individual motivation.
Long-Term Orientation (LTO)/ Short-term

The long term orientation dimension is closely related to the teachings of Confucius and can
be interpreted as dealing with societys search for virtue, the extent to which a society shows a
pragmatic future-oriented perspective rather than a conventional historical short-term point of
view. It is the extent to which people accept delayed gratification of material, social, and
emotional needs. These cultures focus on long-term goals, investment in the future, and are
prepared to sacrifice short-term profit.
Intercultural leadership
1-Dfinition of leadership

"LEADERSHIP IS ACCOMPLISHING THINGS

THAT REACH BEYOND SOLITARY ABILITIES BY

ACTING AND GETTING OTHERS TO ACT

WITH A MATURITY THAT SURPASSES LIMITED

SELF-INTEREST." -- JOHN BAKER, PRESIDENT

O F R E A D Y T H I N K I N G, A N O R G A N I Z A T I O N A L

AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT FIRM.

"A leader comes up with new ideas for his or her

business or venture, innovates further as those

ideas develop, and makes sure to choose the right
people to get the ideas and innovations realized.
Some business schools push the view that one can
be an innovator or a manager, but not both. I think
thats flat wrong one has to be both an innovator
and a manager to be a good leader." -- Dan
Biederman, president of Biederman Redevelopment
Ventures and The Bryant Park Corp.
"Leadership is getting people to want to

follow. That requires engaging them

passionately, from the heart, and requires
persuading people to change.
Management is tactical; leadership is
strategic." -- Tom Kennedy, a certified
management consultant and principal of
The Kennedy Group.
"True leadership is being proactive, especially

when it comes to addressing the not-so-

pleasurable events that sometimes plague the
workplace. The ability to anticipate an
imminent roadblock and tackle it in a
proactive manner is what leads to progress.
Einstein once said, 'Intellectuals solve
problems, geniuses prevent them.'" -- Michael
Raanan, president of the Landmark Tax Group
tax firm.
"Through my professional experience, I've come

to discover the seemingly contradictory truth

that a great leader is defined by his or her
teamwork skills. As John C. Maxwell says, 'A
boss says Go and a leader says Let's Go.'
Leadership is demonstrated through a strong
dedication to a
team and promoting collaboration, whether
you work in a startup or corporate
environment." -- Brittany Dowell, director of
publication relations at Digital Talent Agents .
2-Factors of leadership
 3-Management vs leadership

A manager is A leader is

-Coping with complexity -coping with and promoting

change
-planning and budgeting
- Setting direction
-Organizing and staffing
-Aligning people
-controlling and solving problems
 4-Boss vs leader

Boss Leader
Drive employees Coaches them
Depends on authority On goodwill
Inspires fear Says We
Says I Fixes the breakdown
Uses people Asks
 5-Bass' Theory of Leadership

Trait Theory.
the Great Events Theory
the Transformational Theory
6-Keys to Effective Leadership
 7- Principles of Leadership

Know yourself and seek self-improvement

Be technically proficient
Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your
actions
Make sound and timely decisions
Set the example
 8-Attributes of leadership

-BE

-KNOW

-DO
 9-leadership styles

autocratic or authoritarian
participative or democratic
delegative or laissez-faire
autocratic or authoritarian
participative or democratic
 delegative

laisser-faire
 LEADERSHIP ACROSS DIFFERENT CULTURES

TWO FUNDAMENTAL CROSS-CULTURAL

ISSUES :

Two central aspects of cultures are frequently

discussed in the cross-cultural literature: etic aspects
and emic aspects.
 ETIC vs EMIC

Etic phenomena are common to all cultures, or at

least to all cultures studied to date.
"The etic (scientist-oriented) approach shifts the focus
from local observations, categories, explanations, and
interpretations to those of the anthropologist.
The emic approach investigates how local people
think" (Kottak, 2006). How they perceive and
categorize the world, their rules for behavior, what
has meaning for them, and how they imagine and
explain things.
Emic approach Etic approach
-Perspective of the natives -Perspective of the
observers
-Local vision -Global vision

-Prescriptive translation -Descriptive translation

-Cultural -Analytical

-Mental structures -Behavioral structures

-Cultural transcription -Academic transcription

TEN TIPS FOR THE INTERCULTURAL LEADER
1. Learn about the cultures of people that you work
and interact with,
2. Get a book about intercultural communication
and learn about the subject from an academic level.
3. Take some formal training from intercultural
experts.
4. . Use the opportunity to observe how people
communicate and interact with one another. If you
get the chance to travel abroad do the same when
there.
5. Start listening and paying more attention when
dealing with someone from another culture
6. Temper your own communication style.
7. Learn to tolerate uncertainty.
8. Be patient with others and yourself.
9. Keep on top of your own development.
Continually assess your advancement and
make adjustments.
10. Ask for help and dont be afraid to
apologise for mistakes. People generally are
appreciative that you are trying to
understand them.
 Examples:

Profil of leadership In eastern

europe :
It is a leadership that is source of inspiring,
collaboration, participation..
Charismatic/Value-based leadership

Team oriented Leadership

Participative leadership

Self Protective leadership

Humane Oriented leadership

Autonomous leadership
Profil of leadership In Asia
A leader who works and cares for others, but who uses his
status and position to make decisions regardless of the
contribution of other.
Self protective leadership

Team oriented leadership

Humane oriented leadership

Charismatic/value-based leadership

Autonomous leadership

Participative leadership
Profil of leadership in northern
Europe:
The leaders are inspiring and involve others in decision
making.

Charismatic/value-based Leadership

Participative leadership

Team oriented leadership

Autonomous leadership

Humane oriented leadership

Self protective leadership

Profil of leadership In Anglo-Saxon
countries:
Charismatic/value-based leadership

Participative leadership

Humane oriented leadership

Team oriented leadership

Autonomous leadership

Self protective leadership

 The five common traits of the
successful intercultural leader

I. The foundational mindset: A

willingness to learn
II. Deep self-awareness
III. Genuine inclusiveness
IV. Authentic listening
V. Putting it in action: Personal risk-
taking
 Strategies for developing intercultural leaders

Purposeful recruiting

Developmental mobility.

Smart targets and incentives.

Intercultural leadership according to
Hofstede
Collectivism/Individualism
Masculinity/Feminity
High/Low power distance
Long term/Short term orientation
Indulgence/Restraint
Intercultural leadership according to
Trompenaars
Universalism/Particularism
Individualism/Communitarianism
Achievement/Ascription
Neutral/Emotional
Specific/Diffuse
Sequential/Synchronous time
Internal/outer direction
Case study
The case for Southeast Asia as a learning ground for
leadership

The 10 countries forming the Association of Southeast

Asian Nations (ASEAN) are a multicultural patchwork
without equal. With 11 official languages among them,
Singapore alone has four different official languages:
English, Mandarin, Malay and Tamil, together with a
multitude of Chinese dialects spoken day-to-day. Religious
diversity is a key feature, with Indonesia, the largest Muslim
country in the world with 230 million people, mixing with
Christian Vietnam and Philippines (175 million people), and
Buddhist Thailand, Cambodia and Myanmar (130 million
people). And the workforces of these countries are highly
mobile and diverse. In Singapore, for example, nearly four
out of 10 of the 2.5 million people employed are not
Singapore-born.
 Hofstede and the arab contries

Hofstede (1991), studying the culture of some Arab

countries, concludes that the Arab world is
characterized by a long power distance, collectivist
spirit, a male and a relatively high tendency to
control uncertainty.
 Power distance

The level of power distance is very high in the Arab

world, which means that people accept a hierarchical
order in which everybody has a place and do not
need explanation.
The hierarchy in an organization is seen as a
reflection of the inherent integrities, the
centralization is popular, subordinates expect to be
told what to do and the ideal boss is a autocrat.
 Collectivism vs. Individualism

The Arab world is collectivist. Loyalty in this

collectivist culture is paramount. The society
fosters good relationships where everyone takes
responsibility. In these collectivist societies,
hiring and promotion decisions take into account
the performance of the employee within the
group.
"Befriend the accused, and you'll be accused.
Befriend the vicious, and vicious you'll become"
The Maghreb in quotes.
 Masculinity vs. Femininity

The Arab world is a male society. The manager is

expected to be decisive and confident. This society
wants equity, competition and performance.
Conflicts are resolved by fighting
 Uncertainty avoidance

In these countries, the uncertainty avoidance is high.

They do not tolerate unorthodox behavior. In these
cultures, there's an emotional need for rules (even if
the rules do not seem to work), people have an inner
need to be busy and hard work, precision and
punctuality are the norm. Innovation can petre
fought. Safety is important in individual motivation.
"Science are locks whose key is the study." Book of
Arabic quotes
 Case of Tunisia

To understand better what role culture plays in a

society, we take Tunisia as an exemple.
Acording to some works that dealt with the Tunisian
culture, we can say that the Tunisian cultural
configuration has significant nuances in relation to
the cultural configuration of the Arab world.
 Power distance

Acceptance of the hierarchy , but with dignity.

The importance of equity and dignity in Tunisian culture
values results in the rejection of the domination of others.
This behavior also finds an explanation in both the Muslim
religion, which recognizes no intermediary between God
and human beings, as in popular Tunisian sayings. This is
likely to give rise to a dilemma in reality between this notion
of equity and submission either in institutions or in the .
Thus in the Arab- Muslim family organization , the culture
of obedience is well marked , they are generally centered on
the father who holds absolute power.
 Collectivism vs. Individualism

Tunisia is an Arab Muslim country whose family and

religion are the social origins. These two Tunisians
institutions inculcate values and norms of solidarity
and affection. Zghal (1991) talks about the
importance given in Tunisian society , relationships
due to various social affiliations (family, region ,
tribe, colen workshop ... ) .
On the other hand , the analysis of Tunisian proverbs
and the results of a survey of a representative sample
of the Tunisians show a community orientation.
(Ben Fadhel 1992). However, these collectivist values
tend to be mitigated in recent years. In fact, a recent
study ( Lassoued , 2001) on the culture of Tunisian
companies shows that collectivism is a common
value and this could be explained by an apparition of
some individualistic values in the current society of
Tunisia .
 Masculinity vs. Femininity

The Tunisian culture has a certain balance between

masculinity and femininity (BenFadhel1992), which
is realized, for example, by the interest both to the
quality of life (Feminine according to hofstede value)
and the personal success (masculine). However, the
Tunisian society leans slightly towards the masculine
values such as the desire to achieve individual
performances (BenFadhel 1992), and the emphasis
on work in the life of the Tunisian employee (Sror
and Rejeb, 1996).
 Uncertainty avoidance

Zghal (1991), studying the Tunisian companies could

highlight a cultural logic based on research and the
creation of fuzzy situations without binding specific
rules. This vagueness is met by the absence of
specific rules in solving problems or in avoiding
rules, even if they exist, either by the supervisor or
subordinate.
A recent study (Yahiaoui2004) confirms this
cultural specificity and enriches it by adding the
belief in 'maktoub "(fate) to face uncertain
situations. BenFadhel talks about a tendency to
accept the risk we found even in popular sayings
and proverbs. These characteristics show that
Tunisian society has a low uncertainty avoidance.
Comparative table of intercultural dimensions in the
Arab world

UAE vs MOROCCO
Power distance
ARAB WORLD
The Arab world stretches from Morocco across Northern Africa to the Persian
Gulf. The Arab world is more or less equal to the area known as the Middle
East and North Africa (MENA).

It can also be defined as those countries where Arabic is the dominant

language.
22 Arab countries/areas: Algeria, Bahrain, the Comoros Islands, Djibouti,
Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Oman,
Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab
Emirates, and Yemen. Iran and Turkey are not Arab countries.
Over 200 million Arabs worldwide.
To be an Arab, is not to come from a particular race or lineage.
To be an Arab, like an American, is a cultural trait rather than racial.
The Arab world includes Muslims, Christians and Jews.
Any person who adopts the Arabic language is typically called an Arab.
 Basic Arab Values
One should behave at all times in a way that will create a good
impression on others.
A persons dignity, honor, and reputation are of paramount
importance, and no effort should be spared to protect them. Honor
(or shame) is of- ten viewed as collective, pertaining to the entire
family or group.
Loyalty to ones family takes precedence over personal preferences.
Social class and family background are the major determining factors
of personal status, followed by individual character and
achievement.
Conservative social morality standards should be maintained,
through laws if necessary
Basic Arab Religious Attitudes

Everyone believes in God, acknowledges His power, and has a

religious affiliation.
Humans cannot control events; some things de- pend on Gods
will, that is, fate.
Piety is one of the most admirable characteristics in a person.
There should be no separation between religion and state; religion
should be taught in schools and promoted by governments (this is
the Islamic view, not necessarily shared by Arab Christians).
Established beliefs and practices are sacrosanct. Liberal
interpretations or indiscriminate imitations of Western culture can
lead to social disorder, lower moral standards, and a weakening of
traditional family ties, so they must be rejected
Basic Arab Self-Perceptions
Arabs are generous, humanitarian, polite, and loyal. Arabs see these
traits as characteristic of themselves and as distinguishing them
from some other groups.

Arabs have a rich cultural heritage, as illustrated by their

contributions in medieval times to philosophy, literature, medicine,
architecture, art, mathematics, and the natural sciences (some of
which were made by non-Arabs living within the Islamic empire).
Most of these outstanding accomplishments are largely unknown
and unappreciated in the West.

Although there are many differences among Arab countries, the

Arabs are a clearly defined cultural group and perceive themselves
to be members of the Arab Nation (al-umma al-arabiyya).
COMMUNICATING WITH ARABS
 VARIETIES OF ARABIC
Classical (Modern Standard) Arabic: Modern Standard
Arabic is used for all writing and for formal discussions, speeches, and
news broadcasts but not for ordinary conversation. It is the same in all
Arab countries, except for occasional variations in regional or
specialized vocabulary.

Colloquial Arabic (dialects): Colloquial Arabic is used for

everyday spoken communication but not for writing, except
sometimes in very informal correspondence, in film or play scripts, or
as slang in cartoons and the like.

Formal Spoken Arabic. (Educated Spoken Arabic) is improvised,

consisting principally of Modern Standard Arabic terminology within
the structure of the local dialect; it is used by educated people when
they converse with Arabs whose dialect is very different from their
own. It is an acquired skill, with no hard-and-fast rules.
SPEECH MANNERISMS
Arabs talk a lot, repeat themselves, shout when ex- cited, and make
extensive use of gestures. They punctuate their conversations with oaths
(such as I swear by God) to emphasize what they say, and they exaggerate
for effect. Foreigners sometimes wonder if they are involved in a discussion
or an argument. If you speak softly and make your statements only once,
Arabs may wonder if you really mean what you are saying. People will ask,
Do you really mean that? or Is that true? Its not that they do not believe
you, but they need repetition.

Arabs have a great tolerance for noise and interference during discussions,
Businessmen interrupt meetings to greet callers, answer the telephone, and
sign papers brought in by clerks.. Loudness of speech is mainly for dramatic
effect and in most cases should not be taken as an indication of aggression
or insistence on the part of the speaker. In a taxi in Cairo once, my driver
was shouting and complaining and gesticulating wildly to other drivers as he
worked his way through the crowded streets. In the midst of all this action,
he turned around, laughed, and winked. You know, he said, sometimes I
really enjoy this!
 PLEASANT AND INDIRECT
RESPONSES
In general, Arab speech is rich in color and emotion. It is vibrant
and not tied down to sterile logic. Arab culture values hospitality
and goodwill over precision and direct- ness in conversation. If
you ask for directions, you will almost always get a response,
even if the person is not sure. Arabs believe it is more important
to make a token effort of helpfulness, even if the information is
wrong, than to refuse the re- quest (the person didnt misguide
you, he helped). If bad news is imminent, it may be considered
more ethical to engage in circumlocution rather than going
directly to the brutal truth. Indirect speech is also called for
when making a request of a prominent or elderly person; it is a
sign of deference
 UPHEMISMS
Arabs are uncomfortable discussing illness, disaster, or death.
This trait illustrates how the power of words affects Arab speech
and behavior. In their view, acarelessreferencetobadevents
canleadtomisfortuneormakeabadsituationworse.Arabs
avoid such references as much as possible; they use
euphemisms instead.

For example, instead of saying that someone is sick, Arabs may

describe a person as a little tired. They avoid saying a word
like cancer, saying in- stead, He has it or She has the
disease. They will often wait until an illness is over before
telling others about it, even relatives. Similarly, Arabs do not
speak easily about death and sometimes avoid telling others
about a death for some time; even then they will phrase it
euphemistically.
 PROVERBS
Arabs use proverbs far more than Westerners do, and they have
hundreds. Many are in the forms of rhymes or couplets. A persons
knowledge of proverbs and when to use them enhances his or her
image by demonstrating wisdom and insight. Here is a selection of
proverbs that help illuminate the Arab outlook on life. Proverbs
frequently refer to family and relatives, poverty and social inequality,
fate and luck
Examples
Support your brother, whether he is the tyrant or the tyrannized.
The knife of the family does not cut. (If you are harmed by a
relative, dont take offense.)
You are like a tree, giving your shade to the outside. (You should give
more attention to your own family.)
One hand alone does not clap. (Cooperation is essential.)
The hand of God is with the group. (There is strength in unity.)
 Older than you by a day, wiser than you by a year. (Respect
older people and their advice.)
The eye cannot rise above the eyebrow. (Be satisfied with your
station in life.)
The world is changeable, one day honey and the next day
onions. (This rhymes in Arabic.)
Every sun has to set. (Fame and fortune may be fleeting.)
Seven trades but no luck. (This rhymes in Arabic. It means that
even if a person is qualified, be cause of bad luck he or she may
not find work.)
Your tongue is like a horseif you take care of it, it takes care
of you; if you treat it badly, it treats you badly.
The dogs may bark but the caravan moves on. (A person should
rise above petty criticism.)
Patience is beautiful.
The slave does the thinking and the lord carries it out. (Man
proposes and God disposes.)
PERSONAL QUESTIONS : Just as Arabs may pose questions that
Westerners find too personal, Westerners should avoid asking questions
that Arabs consider too personal, particularly those pertaining to
women in the family, if asked by a man. If you are a man, it is best to talk
about the family, refer- ring to a mans wife, sister, or grown daughter.
SENSITIVE SUBJECTS: There are two subjects that Arabs favor in social

conversation with foreigners religion and politics and these can be

sensitive, on both sides. Muslims enjoy discussing religion with non-
Muslim Westerners because they are curious about Western religious
beliefs and because they feel motivated to share information about
Islam with friends as a favor to them
SOCIAL DISTANCE: Arabs tend to stand and sit closer and to touch

other people (of the same sex) more than Westerners do. It is common
to see two men or two women holding hands as they walk down a
street, which is simply a sign of friendship. Similarly, after shaking hands
in greeting, Arabs may continue to hold your hand while talking if the
conversation is expected to be brief. They will then shake it again when
saying good-bye. Kissing on both cheeks is a common form of greeting
(again, only with members of the same sex)
 First impressions: In the Arab world, a lot of information is
derived from a person's body language. The way one walks, sits,
presents themselves, and others such movements are noted
from the very first encounter because first impressions will be
remembered
Eye contact: When conversing, maintaining eye contact is
important. However, it's best to avoid winking. Winking in the
Arab culture is considered a very flirtatious gesture. An
innocent wink as a way of saying "good morning" or "thank
you" can cause much discomfort for someone of the opposite
gender. Therefore, it's best to avoid winking.
 BUSINESS
RELATIONSHIPS
BUSINESS FRIENDSHIPS
In business relationships, personal contacts are much valued and
quickly established. Arabs do not fit easily in- to impersonal roles, such
as the business colleague role (with no private socializing offered or
expected) or the supervisor/employee roles (where there may be
cordial relations during work hours but where personal concerns are
not discussed). For Arabs, all acquaintances are personal friends. A
good personal relationship is the most important single factor in doing
business successfully with Arabs. A little light conversation before
beginning a business discussion can be extremely effective in setting
the right tone Usually Arabs set aside a few minutes at the beginning of
a meeting to inquire about each others health and recent activities.
Example: The manager of the sales office of a British industrial
equipment firm based in Kuwait talks about his initial inability to
select effective salesmen. He learned that the best salesmen were not
necessarily the most knowledgeable, eager, or efficient but were
instead those who were relaxed, personable, and patient enough to
establish friendly personal relations with their clients
OFFICE RELATIONS
When Westerners work with the same people every day in an office, they
sometimes become too casual about greetings. Arabs are conscientious about
greeting everyone they see with Good morning or Good afternoon if it is the
first encounter of the day, and they will go out of their way to say Welcome
back when you return after an absence. Some Westerners omit greetings
altogether, especially if they are distracted or hurried, and Arab coworkers
invariably take notice. They usually under- stand and are not personally
offended, but they interpret it as a lack of good manners. They are simply more
for- mal; it is a matter of adab, good manners.

Example: An American nurse at a hospital in Taif, Saudi Arabia, had an

enlightening experience on one occasion when she telephoned her Saudi
supervisor to report arrangements for an emergency drill. She was
enumerating the steps being taken when the Saudi said, Thats fine, but just
a moment first of all, how are you today?
Remember to inquire about business colleagues and coworkers if they have
been sick, and ask about their personal concerns from time to time. Arabs do
mention what is happening in their lives, usually good things like impending
trips, weddings, and graduations. You do not need to devote much time to
 In Arab offices supervisors and managers are expected to give praise
to their employees from time to time, to reassure them that their
work is noticed and appreciated. Direct praise, such as You are an
excellent employee and a real asset to this office, may be a little
embarrassing to a Westerner, but Arabs give it frequently.

Example: I was once visiting an American engineering office in

Riyadh and fell into conversation with a Jordanian translator. I asked
him how he liked his work. He answered in Arabic so that the
Americans would not understand, Ive been working here for four
years. I like it fine, but I wish they would tell me when my work is
good, not just when they find something wrong. Some Westerners
assume that employees know they are appreciated simply be- cause
they are kept on the job, whereas Arab employees, and friends, for
that matter, expect and want praise when they feel they have earned
it. Even when a Westerner does offer praise, it may be insufficient in
quantity or quality for the Arab counterpart
 Criticism
Arab employees usually feel that criticism of their work, if it is phrased too
bluntly, is a personal insult. A foreigner is well advised to take care when giving
criticism. It should be indirect and include praise of any good points first,
accompanied by assurances of high regard for the individual. To preserve the
persons dignity, avoid criticism in front of others, and consider using an
intermediary. The concept of constructive criticism truly cannot be translated
into Arabicforthright criticism is al- most always taken as personal and
destructive.

Example: An American supervisor was discussing a draft report at some

length with his Jordanian employee. He asked him to rewrite more than half
of it, adding, You must have entirely misunderstood what I wanted. The
Jordanian was deeply hurt and said to one of the other employees, I
wonder why he doesnt like me. A far better approach would have been,
You are doing excellent work here, and this is a good report. We need to
revise some things, however; lets look at this again and work through it to-
gether, so we can make it even better.
 Another example: I remember overhearing a dramatic confrontation
in an office in Tunis, when an American supervisor reprimanded a
Tunisian employee because he continually arrived late. This was done
in front of other employees, some of whom were his subordinates.
The Tunisian flared up in anger and responded, I am from a good
family! I know myself and my position in society! Clearly he felt that
his honor had been threatened and was not at all concerned with
addressing the issue at hand.
 INTERMEDIARIES
If you are a manager, you may find that some employees prefer to deal
with you through another person, especially if that person knows you
well. An intermediary may serve as a representative of someone with a
request or as a negotiator between two parties in a dispute. Mediation
or representation through a third party also saves face in the event that a
request is not granted, and it gives the petitioner confidence that
maximum influence has been brought to bear. You may want to initiate
this yourself if an unpleasant confrontation with someone appears
necessary. But because you, as an outsider, could easily make a mistake
in selecting an intermediary, it is best to consult with other Arab
employees of a higher rank than the person with whom you have a
conflict.
Foreign companies have local employees on their staff who serve as
liaisons with government offices and help obtain permits and clearances.
The better acquainted the employee is with government officials, the
faster the work will be done and the better the service will be. Arab
government relations employees are indispensable; no foreigner could
hope to be as effective with highly placed officials.
PRIVATE AND PUBLIC MANNERS
In the Arab way of thinking, people are clearly divided into friends and strangers.
The manners required when dealing with these two groups are very different.
With friends and personal acquaintances, it is essential to be polite, honest,
generous, and helpful at all times. These are private manners. However, when
Arabs are dealing with strangers, public manners are applied; these do not
call for the same kind of considerateness. It is accepted practice for many Arabs
to do such things as crowd into lines, push, drive aggressively, and overcharge
tourists. If you are a stranger to the person or persons you are dealing with,
many of them will respond to you as they do to any stranger. Resenting this
public behavior will not help you function better in Arab societies, and judging
individuals as ill-mannered because of it will inhibit the development of needed
relationships
Example: While shopping in a tourist shop in Damascus, I watched a busload
of tourists buy items at extremely high prices. When they were gone, I
chatted with the shopkeeper for a few minutes and then bought some things.
After I had left, a small boy came running after methe shop owner had sent
him to return a few more pennies in change
 Whenever I am in a crowded airport line, I try to make light
conversation with the people around me. Never has anyone with whom
I talked tried to push in front of me; in fact, they often motion for me to
precede them.
Personal contact makes all the difference. If you feel jostled while you
are waiting in line, the gentle announcement I was here first or
Please wait in line (along with a smile, if you can possibly manage it)
will usually produce an apology, and the person will at least stand
behind you, if not others. Keep calm, avoid scenes, and remember that
none of the behavior is directed at you personally .
 EMOTION AND LOGIC

How people deal with emotion and what value they place on
objective versus subjective behavior is culturally conditioned.
While objectivity is given considerable emphasis in Western
culture, the opposite is true in Arab culture. Among Arabs,
though, whatever you encounter, there are always reasons;
no behavior is random.
OBJECTIVITY AND SUBJECTIVITY
Westerners are taught that objectivity, the examination of facts in a logical
way without the intrusion of emotional bias, is the mature and constructive
approach to human affairs. One of the results of this belief is that in Western
culture, subjectivity a willingness to allow personal feelings and emotions to
influence ones view of events represents immaturity. Arabs believe
differently. They place a high value on the display of emotion, sometimes to
the embarrassment or discomfort of foreigners. It is not uncommon to hear
Westerners label this behavior as immature, imposing their own values on
what they have observed.

Example : A British office manager in Saudi Arabia once described his

problems with a Palestinian employee: He is too sensitive, too emotional
about everything, he said. The first thing he should do is grow up. In
stark contrast, Arabs may find Westerners cold and inscrutable.
 SOCIAL
FORMALITIES AND
ETIQUETTE
Social formalities and rules of etiquette are extremely
important in Arab society. Good manners constitute the
most salient factor in evaluating a persons character
Hospitality: Arabs are generous in the hospitality they offer to
friends and strangers alike, and they admire and value the same
in others. Generosity to guests is essential for a good reputation.
It is a serious insult to characterize someone as stingy or
inhospitable. Arabs assume the role of host or hostess
whenever the situation calls for it in their office, home, or shop.
Sometimes people say, Welcome to my country (in English)
when they see a foreigner on the street or in a shop, thus
assuming the role of host to a guest. Arabs are always willing to
help a foreigner, again, because they take on the role of host. If
you ask directions, some people may insist on accompanying you
to your destination.
Example: One American tourist reported that when she and
her husband were visiting Egypt, people sometimes took their
hands to help with crossing the street in the midst of
harrowing traffic.
TIME AND APPOINTMENTS Among Arabs, time is not as fixed and
rigidly segmented as it tends to be among Westerners. It flows from past to
present to future, and Arabs flow with it. Social occasions and appointments
need not have fixed beginnings or endings. Arabs are thus much more relaxed
about the timing of events than they are about other aspects of their lives.
Nevertheless, these attitudes are beginning to change as people respond to
the demands of economic and technological development and
modernization. Some Arabs are careful to arrive on time (and are impatient
with those who do not), and some are habitually late, especially for social
events. Given these attitudes, a person who arrives late and has kept you
waiting may not realize that you have been inconvenienced and expect an
apology. Frequently, an Arab shopkeeper or someone in a service trade fails to
have something finished by a promised time. This also pertains to public
services (such as get- ting a landline telephone connected), personal services,
bus and train departures, customer services (where standing in long lines can
be expected), and bureaucratic procedures. Be flexible; everyone expects
delays. You will appear unreasonably impatient and demanding if you insist on
having things finished at a precise time.
 Discussing business:

Arabs mistrust people who do not appear to be sincere or

who fail to demonstrate an interest in them personally or
in their country. They also dont like to be hurried or to
feel they are being pressured into a business agreement. If
they like you, they will agree to work out an arrangement
or a compromise; if they do not like you, they will
probably stop listening. Arabs evaluate the source of a
statement or proposal as much as the content. Initial
reactions by your Arab counterparts to your suggestions,
ideas, and proposals can be quite misleading if taken at
face value. Arabs are not likely to criticize openly but are
more likely to hint that changes are needed or to give
more subtle indications that the proposal is unacceptable
by inaction, for instance. They may promise to be in touch
but fail to do so (which is more polite than a refusal)
 Dont take flattery and praise too seriously. It will more likely be
adherence to good manners than an indicator of potential success
in the business transaction. A noncommittal reaction to a
proposal does not mean it has been rejected; nor does it
guarantee ultimate acceptance. Some decisions simply require
consultation with superiors
if you press for a specific time by which you want a decision, you
may actually harm your chances of success. Your counterpart may
perceive it as an insult, especially if the person is a high-ranking
manager or executive.
If a decision is coming slowly, it may mean that you need to
reassess the proposal. Do not expect to conclude all of your
business at once, especially if several decisions are required.
Patience and repeated visits are called for. Arabs have plenty of
time, and they see little need to accommodate foreigners who are
in a hurry and trying to pressure them.