CLIMATOLOGY

FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE

Solar radiation
Ambient temperature
Air humidity
Precipitation
Wind
Sky condition
SOLAR RADIATION
Solar radiation is the radiant energy received from the sun. It is the intensity of sunrays
falling per unit time per unit area and is usually expressed in Watts per square metre
(W/m2). The radiation incident on a surface varies from moment to moment depending on
its geographic location (latitude and longitude of the place), orientation, season, time of day
and atmospheric conditions

EFFECT OF SEASON

EFFECT OF ORIENTATION

EFFECT OF SKY COVER EFFECT OF TIME

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
The temperature of air in a shaded (but well ventilated) enclosure
is known as the ambient temperature; it is generally expressed in
degree Celsius (C). Temperature at a given site depends on wind
as well as local factors such as shading, presence of water body,
sunny condition, etc. A simple thermometer kept in a Stevensons
screen can measure ambient temperature.

EFFECT OF SHADING EFFECT OF WATER BODY EFFECT OF SKY CONDITION

 AIR HUMIDITY

Air humidity or Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the

mass of water vapour in a certain volume of moist air at a given
temperature, to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of
saturated air at the same temperature; it is normally expressed as
a percentage.

EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE EFFECT OF LOW TEMPERATURE

AND HIGH HUMIDITY AND LOW HUMIDITY AND HIGH HUMIDITY
PRECIPITATION
Precipitation includes water in all its forms rain, snow, hail or dew.
It is usually measured in millimeters (mm) by using a rain gauge.

EFFECT OF RAINFALL EFFECT OF SNOW

WIND
Wind is the movement of air due to a difference in atmospheric
pressure, caused by differential heating of land and water mass
on the earths surface by solar radiation and rotation of earth.
Wind speed can be measured by an anemometer and is usually
expressed in metrer per second (m/s).

FACTORS AFFECTING WIND

SKY CONDITION

Sky condition generally refers to the extent of cloud cover in the

sky or the duration of sunshine. Under clear sky conditions, the
intensity of solar radiation increases; whereas it reduces in
monsoon due to cloud cover. The re-radiation losses from the
external surfaces of buildings increase when facing clear skies
than covered skies.

EFFECT OF SKY CONDITION

CLIMATIC ZONES AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS
CLIMATIC
ZONES OF INDIA
WARM HUMID CLIMATE
|ELEMENTS|
1 Air Temperature
During the day between 27 and 32c
At night, between 21 and 27c

2 Humidity
Relative Humidity (RH) remain high 75% for most of the time, but vary from 55%
to almost 100%

3 Vapour Pressure
Between 2500 to 3500 N/m2

4 Precipitation
High precipitation (rainfall) throughout the year
Generally becoming more intense for several consecutive month.
Annual rainfall 2000 to 5000 mm in one year
Occurrence of gusty winds and electric storms
WARM HUMID CLIMATE
|ELEMENTS|
5 Sky Condition
Are fairly cloudy throughout the year
Cloud cover 60% to 90%

6 Solar Radiation
normally high / maximum party reflected and partly scattered by the cloud
higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at Palembang, Indonesia) or
the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at Sitiawan,
Malaysia).
7 Wind
Wind velocities are typically low, calm periods
Strong wind can occur during rain squalls.
8 Vegetation
Grows quickly due to frequent rains & high temperature
Difficult to control
High humidity accelerates mould and algae growth, rusting and rotting.
WARM HUMID CLIMATE
|BUILDING CHARACTERISTIC|
Wall - is still warm at night because of the high solar radiation
during the day
Pitch roof - is used act as a buffer to reduce the entering of heat
into the house
Gutters are built
Plastered single layer wall to prevent heat captured in the
house
Window hoods and balcony - to reduce the entering of solar
radiation and daylight into the house
More windows and the opening are wider
Aprons - to prevent dirt on the wall
Wide doors wind shaft is built to enable heated air go outside
Ceiling (high ceiling) to prevent direct heat into the house
 HOT & DRY CLIMATE
|ELEMENTS|
1 Air Temperature
During the day between 43 and 49c.
At night - Cool season between 10 and 18c
- Dry season between 27 and 32c
2 Humidity
Relative Humidity (RH) is low from 10% to almost 55%

3 Vapour Pressure
Between 750 to 1500 N/m2

4 Precipitation
Slight and variable throughout the year
Limited rainfall 50mm rain in a few hours
Flash rain may occurred but some region may not have any rain for several years
 HOT & DRY CLIMATE
|ELEMENTS|
5 Sky Condition
Are normally clear clouds are few due to low humidity of the air
During storms, skies are dark and dull

6 Solar Radiation
Strong and mainly direct during the day
Absence of cloud permits easy release of the heat stored during the day.

7 Wind
Hot and together with dust and sand
Occurrence of sandstorm

8 Vegetation
Sparse and difficult to maintain due to lack of rain and low humidity (ie: palms, cactus)
Soil is usually dusty and very dry
 HOT & DRY CLIMATE
|BUILDING CHARACTERISTIC|
Flat roof - is used because of sandstorms not obstruct the wind
flow
Pitch roof - should be built as double layers
Small windows - to prevent sand and dust from entering the
house
Thick wall the entering of heat into the house during daytime
become slower and at night the cold air push the warm air to flow
outside and the building is maintained cold (ie: pyramid)
Concrete houses are built
Colors of the buildings - light / bright
Materials - crack and break up cause by high daytime
temperature and rapid cooling at night
 COMPOSITE CLIMATE
|ELEMENTS|
Usually occur in : large land masses near the tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn, which are far from Equator.
Examples: Lahore, Mandalay, New Delhi
Two seasons 2/3 of the year is hot dry and 1/3 is warm humid.
Localities further North and South often have a third season, best
described as cool-dry.
 COMPOSITE CLIMATE
|ELEMENTS|
1
Air Temperature (C)

Season Hot-dry Warm-humid Cool-dry

Daytime mean
32 43 27-32 Up to 27
max
Night-time
21 27 24 27 4 10
mean min
Diurnal mean
11 22 36 11 22
range

2 Humidity
RH is low throughout the dry periods at 20 55%
Wet season : rises to 55 95%
COMPOSITE CLIMATE
|ELEMENTS|
3 Precipitation
The monsoon rains are intense and prolonged during wet period
During dry season - little or no rain
Heavy dew at night, hail and thunderstorm may also occur

4 Solar Radiation
Strong and direct during the clear periods

5 Winds
Variable, predominantly north-east and south-easterlies

6 Vegetation
Green although not very luxuriant during the wet season but wither in the dry
season when the ground can turn brown or red
COMPOSITE CLIMATE
|BUILDING CHARACTERISTIC|
Courtyard type buildings are very suitable
A moderate dense, low rise development
Large projecting eaves and wide verandahs are needed in the
warm-humid season as out door living areas - to reduce sky glare,
keep out the rain and provide shade
Shading devices should preferably be of low thermal capacity
Roof and external walls - constructed of solid masonry and
concrete.
Resistance insulation - placed at the outside surfaces of
external walls or roofs.
Large openings in opposite walls - preferably with solid
shutters.
COLD CLIMATE
|ELEMENTS|
Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of
climate. Most cold and cloudy regions are situated at high
altitudes like Ootacamund, Shimla, Shillong, Srinagar and
Mahabaleshwar
The cold and sunny type of climate is experienced in Leh
(Ladakh).

1
Air Temperature
During the day between 20 30 C for Cold and Humid in Summer
4 and 8 C for Cold and Humid in Winter
17 24 C for Cold and Sunny in Summer
-3 to 4 Cfor Cold and Sunny in Winter

2
Humidity
70 80 % In Cold and Humid Climate
10 50 % In Cold and Sunny Climate.
COLD CLIMATE
|ELEMENTS|
3
Precipitation
About 1000mm Annual rainfall distributed evenly throughout the year in Cold and
Cloudy Climate
less than 200 mm per year in Cold and Sunny Climate

4
Solar Radiation
The sky is overcast for most part of the year except during summer in Cold and Cloudy
generally intense with a very low percentage of diffuse radiation in Cold and Sunny

5
Winds
Winds are occasionally intense.
THERMAL
COMFORT
Thermal comfort is, that
condition of mind which
expresses satisfaction with
the thermal environment. It
is also, the range of climatic
conditions within which a
majority of the people would
not feel discomfort either of
heat or cold. Such a zone in
still air corresponds to a
range of 20 30 C dry bulb
temperature with 30 60 %
relative humidity. Besides,
various climatic elements
such as wind speed, vapour
pressure and radiation also
affect the comfort conditions.
COMFORT REQUIREMENTS AND
PHYSICAL INDICATION
[HOT AND DRY REGION]
COMFORT REQUIREMENTS AND
PHYSICAL INDICATION
[WARM AND HUMID REGION]
COMFORT REQUIREMENTS AND
PHYSICAL INDICATION
[MODERATE REGION]
COMFORT REQUIREMENTS AND
PHYSICAL INDICATION
[COLD REGION]
COMFORT REQUIREMENTS AND
PHYSICAL INDICATION
[COMPOSITE REGION]
MACRO AND MICRO CLIMATE

Macro-climate the climate of a larger area such as a region or a

country
Micro-climate the variations in localised climate around a
building
The macro and micro climate has a very important effect on both
the energy performance and environmental performance of
buildings, both in the heating season and in summer.
The site and design of a building can have a profound effect upon
the interaction between a building and its environment.
MICROCLIMATE
Affected by:
Earth
Wind
Fire
Water
EARTH: TOPOGRAPHY
The leeward side of
a
hill can protect from
unwanted winds
ELEVATION
Temperature changes about -3.6 F
with each +1000 feet change in altitude

Elevation Temperature
Salt Lake City 4200 95 F
Park City 6800 ~86 F
RAIN & SNOW SHADOWS
Form when
moisture precipitates out
as air moves up slopes

L: p.73 Fig. 5.2d

 GROUND COVER VEGETATION
Trees, shrubbery,
and grasses provide
shade that prevents
moisture from
evaporating

Permeable surfaces
reduce temperatures Reeves House, Lopez Island, WA
Cutler-Anderson, 2002
through evaporative
http://www.greenroofs.com/projects/
cooling pview.php?id=562
GROUND COVER
Impermeable
surfaces reduce
evaporative cooling
opportunities
SURFACE COLOR
Lighter surfaces
reflect radiant
heat

Darker surfaces
absorb radiant
heat
URBAN HEAT ISLAND
Large concentrations
of thermal masses
with darker and/or
impermeable surfaces
create urban heat islands
 WIND: TOPOGRAPHY
Warm air rises
Cool air drops

Morning and
afternoon
diurnal winds are
intensified in canyons and
on sloped surfaces and
diverted by hills and
ridges
CONVECTIVE AIR FLOW
Warm air rises
Cool air drops

Recognizing air channels can help

reduce discomfort or enhance comfort
WIND DIRECTION &
SPEED

Confirm mean (average) speed

direction
Consult a wind rose for
prevailing direction

L: p. 89 Region 1
 WIND ROSES
January

L: p.81 Fig. 5.6d

 WIND ROSES
July

L: p.83 Fig. 5.6f

SEA BREEZE EFFECT
Onshore winds occur
when water
temperature is lower
than adjoining air
temperature over land.

Offshore winds are the

reverse process.
BERNOULI EFFECT
Air flow closer to
the ground is slowed by
frictional effects of
surfaces

L: p.270 Fig. 10.5j

VENTURI EFFECT
Air follows the path of
least resistance

Wind speeds increase

as cross sectional area
decreases

L: p.318 Fig. 11.8c

WIND
BREAKS/CHANNELING
Terrain and
vegetation can block or
channel wind

Plan Views
SOLAR (FIRE): MEAN DAILY
RADIATION
Confirm how much solar radiation is a available

S: p. 1504, T. C.3
MEAN PERCENTAGE OF
POSSIBLE SUNSHINE L: p. 89 Region 1

Confirm
how frequently the
sun shines
SOLAR ORIENTATION
South facing slopes get significantly
more solar radiation than north facing
slopes

N
WATER: THERMAL MASS
Large bodies of
water moderate local
temperatures

A thermal mass
that can act as at
thermal buffer/ heat
sink
 LAKES & OCEANS
Warm
80F
temperatures 72F

are reduced in
summer
30F
35F
Cool
temperatures
are raised in 10F
10F

winter
GROUNDWATER

Groundwate
r table affects
temperature and
humidity
RIVERS & STREAMS
Moving water
generates air
movement
PERSPIRATION
Occurs as body
core temperature rises

In low RH
conditions evaporation
occurs and cools skin

In high RH
conditions evaporation is
inhibited
INSOLATION
Humidity and cloud
cover affect the amount of
solar radiation entering or
leaving the local
environment
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Trees and
shrubbery give off
moisture that
increases local
humidity
 WIND CIRCULATION PATTERN INSIDE THE BUILDING
The keys to good wind ventilation design are the building orientation and massing, as well as sizing
and placing openings. To maximize wind ventilation, the pressure difference between the windward
(inlet) and leeward (outlet) has to be maximized. High pressures occur on the windward side of a
building and low pressures occur on the leeward side. Windows or vents placed on opposite sides of
the building give natural breezes a pathway through the structure. This is called cross-ventilation.
Cross-ventilation is generally the most effective form of wind ventilation.
EFFECTS OF OPENING HEIGHT ON
PASSIVE VENTILATION
Placing inlets low in the room and outlets high in the room can cool spaces more
effectively because they leverage the natural convection of air. Cooler air sinks lower,
while hot air rises; therefore, locating the opening down low helps push cooler air
through the space, while locating the exhaust up high helps pull warmer air out of the
space.
VENTILATION INSIDE THE BUILDING WITH
DIFFERENT OPENINGS

Placing openings across from, but not directly opposite, each other causes the room's air to
mix, better distributing the cooling and fresh air. Also, you can increase cross ventilation by
having larger openings on the leeward faces of the building that the windward faces and
placing inlets at higher pressure zones and outlets at lower pressure zones.
EFFECT OF MASSING OF
BUILDING
EFFECT OF BUILDING
ORIENTATION ON VENTILATION
APPLICATION OF CLIMATIC
PRINCIPALS IN DESIGN OF BUILDING
For Hot and Dry Climate:

The design objectives accordingly are:

(A) Resist heat gain by:
Decreasing the exposed surface
Increasing the thermal resistance
Increasing the thermal capacity
Increasing the buffer spaces
Decreasing the air-exchange rate
during daytime
Increasing the shading
(B) Promote heat loss by:
Ventilation of appliances
Increasing the air exchange
rate during cooler parts of the
day or night-time
Evaporative cooling (e.g. roof
surface evaporative cooling)
Earth coupling (e.g. earth-air
pipe system)
 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR HOT & DRY CLIMATE
(1) Site:
Landform: Generally flat, hence the surrounding areas heat
up uniformly. For undulating site, constructing on the leeward
side of the slope is preferred so that the effect of hot dusty
winds is reduced. Building in a depression is preferable as
cool air tends to sink in valleys.

Water bodies: Hot air blowing over water gets cooled which
can then be allowed to enter the building. Fountains and
water cascades in the vicinity of a building aid this process.

Street width and orientation: Streets must be narrow so that

they cause mutual shading of buildings. Or ientation in the
north-south direction helps to block solar radiation.
 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR HOT & DRY CLIMATE
Open spaces and built form: The size of the
courtyards should be such that the mid-morning and
the hot afternoon sun are avoided. Grass can be used
as ground cover to absorb solar radiation and aid
evaporative cooling.

2. Orientation and plantform:

An east-west orientation (i.e. longer axis along the
east-west), should be preferred. This is due to the fact
that south and north facing walls are easier to shade
than east and west walls. The surface to volume (S/V)
ratio should be kept as minimum as possible to reduce
heat gains
 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
HOT & DRY CLIMATE
(3). Building envelope:
Roof:The material of the roof should be massive; a reinforced
cement concrete (RCC) slab is preferred to asbestos cement
(AC) sheet roof. External insulation in the form of mud phuska
with inverted earthen pots is also suitable. A false ceiling in
rooms having exposed roofs can help in reducing the
discomfort level. The larger the roof area, the better is the
cooling effect e.g. vaulted roof.
Walls:In multi-storeyed buildings, It is estimated that walls
contribute to about 80% of the annual cooling load. So, the
control of heat gain through the walls by shading is an
important
 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR HOT & DRY CLIMATE
Fenestration: Minimising the window area (in terms of
glazing) can definitely lead to lower indoor temperatures.
More windows should be provided in the north facade of
the building as compared to the east, west and south. All
openings should be protected from the sun by using
external shading devices such as chajjas and fins.
Moveable shading devices such as curtains and
venetian blinds can also be used. Openings are
preferred at higher levels. The use of jaalis(lattice work)
made of wood, stone or RCC may be considered
Colour and texture: Darker shades should be avoided
for surfaces exposed to direct solar radiation. The
surface of the roof can be of white broken glazed tiles
(china mosaic flooring). The surface of the wall should
preferably be textured to facilitate self shading.
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR WARM AND HUMID CLIMATE
The main objectives of building design in
this zone should be:
Resist heat gain by: To promote heat loss
(a) Decreasing by:
exposed surface area (a) Ventilation of
(b) Increasing thermal appliances
resistance (b) Increasing air
(c) Increasing buffer exchange rate
spaces (ventilation)
throughout the day
(d) Increasing shading (c) Decreasing
(e) Increasing humidity levels
reflectivity
 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
WARM AND HUMID CLIMATE
1. Site:
1. Landform: The consideration of landform is
immaterial for a flat site. However, if there are slopes
and depressions, then the building should be located
on the windward side.
2. Water bodies: Since humidity is high in these regions,
water bodies are not essential.
3. Open spaces and built form: Buildings should be
spread out with large open spaces for unrestricted air
movement
4. Street width and orientation: Major streets should be
oriented parallel to or within 30 of the prevailing wind
direction to encourage ventilation in warm and humid
regions. The width of the streets should be such that
the intense solar radiation during late morning and
early afternoon is avoided in summer.
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR WARM AND HUMID CLIMATE
(2) Orientation and plan form: Since the temperatures
are not excessive, free plans can be evolved as long as the
house is under protective shade. The buildings could be
long and narrow to allow cross-ventilation. Since
temperatures in the shade are not very high, semi-open
spaces such as balconies, verandahs and porches can be
used advantageously for daytime activities.