Running Water

Running water is the most

important geologic agent in
eroding, transporting and
depositing sediment
Nearly every landscape on
Earth shows the results of
stream erosion or deposition
 Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic cycle - the movement and interchange
of water between the sea, air, and land
Evaporation
Solar radiation provides energy
Precipitation
Rain or snow
Transpiration
Evaporation from plants
Runoff
Water flowing over land surface
Infiltration
Water soaking into the ground
 Running Water
Stream - a body of running water,
confined to a channel, that runs downhill
under the influence of gravity Insert revised Fig. 10.2
Headwaters - upper part of stream near its
source in the mountains
Mouth - place where a stream enters sea,
lake or larger stream
Channel - a long, narrow depression eroded
by a stream into rock or sediment
Stream banks - sides of channel
Streambed - bottom of the channel
Floodplain - flat valley floor composed of
sediment deposited by the stream
 Drainage Basins

Drainage basin - the total area

drained by a stream and its tributaries
Tributary - a small stream flowing into
a larger one
Divide - ridge or high ground that
divides one drainage basin from
another
Continental Divide separates the streams
that flow into the Pacific from those that
flow into the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico
Mississippi River Drainage Basin
Missouri River Drainage Basin
Yellowstone River Drainage Basin
Powder River Drainage Basin
 Drainage Patterns
Drainage pattern - the arrangement, in map
view, of a stream and its tributaries
Most tributaries join the main stream at an acute
angle, forming a V or Y pointing downstream
Dendritic - drainage pattern resembling the
branches of a tree
Radial pattern - streams diverge outward like
the spokes of a wheel
Typically form on conical mountains (volcanoes)
Rectangular pattern - tributaries have frequent
90 bends and join other streams at right angles
Trellis pattern - parallel streams with short
tributaries meeting at right angles
The Parana River, Brazil: rectangular drainage?
The Big Sandy: a meandering stream
 Sediment Deposition
Meandering streams flow faster along
the outside of bends and more slowly Insert Fig. 10.20

along the inside, depositing point bars

on the insides of the meanders

Meander cutoffs may form when a

new, shorter channel is cut through the
narrow neck of a meander (as during a
flood)
Deposition of
sand bars,
formation of
cross bedding
and Ox-bows
(not related)
 Stream Erosion
Stream erosion (and deposition)
controlled by flow velocity and discharge
Stream velocity controlled by stream gradient
(slope), channel shape and channel roughness
Maximum velocity near center of channel
Floods involve increased velocity and
discharge (volume of water passing a
particular point in a stream over time)

Higher stream velocities promote erosion

and transport of coarser sediments
Erosion of very small particles difficult due
to molecular binding forces
 Stream Erosion
Stream gradient is the downhill slope of the streambed
Typically measured in feet per mile in the U.S., and in meters
per kilometer elsewhere
Usually decreases downstream
Channel shape and roughness
Both effect stream velocity due to drag
Narrower, deeper channels allow faster flow
Smoother channels allow faster flow
Wider, shallower channels decrease flow speed
Rougher channels decrease flow speed
Stream discharge is the volume of water flowing past a
given point in a unit of time
 Stream Erosion
Streams cut their own valleys, deepening
and widening them over time and carrying
away the sediment
Stream erosion occurs by three
mechanisms: hydraulic action, solution,
and abrasion
Hydraulic action - ability of flowing water to
pick up and move rock and sediment
Solution - dissolving of rocks (e.g., limestone)
Abrasion - grinding away of stream channel by
the friction and impact of the sediment load
Potholes are eroded into streambed by the abrasive
action of the sediment load in the stream
 Sediment Transportation
Sediment load transported by a stream can
be subdivided into bed load, suspended
load, and dissolved load
Bed load - large or heavy particles that travel on
the streambed
Traction load - large particles that travel along the
streambed by rolling, sliding or dragging
Saltation load - medium particles (typically sand-
sized) that travel downstream by bouncing along -
sometimes in contact with the streambed and
sometimes suspended in the flowing water
Suspended load - sediment that is small/light
enough to remain above the stream bottom by
turbulent flow for an indefinite period of time
Dissolved load - dissolved ions produced by
chemical weathering of soluble minerals upstream
 Sediment Deposition

Sediments are temporarily deposited

along stream course as bars and
floodplain deposits, and at/near its end
as deltas or alluvial fans
Bars - ridges of sediment (usually
sand or gravel) deposited in the
middle or along the sides of a stream
Braided streams contain sediment deposited
as numerous bars around which water flows
in highly interconnected rivulets
 A Braided River: typical of rivers just disgorging from
mountainous areas. A rapid drop in current velocity and
too much stuff to carry
The North Platte River: A Braided Stream
 Sediment Deposition

Floodplains are broad strips of

land built up by sedimentation on
either side of a stream channel
Floodplain sediments are left behind
as flood waters slow and recede at
the end of flood events
Main channel has slightly raised
banks with respect to the floodplain
known as natural levees
 Sediment Deposition

Delta - body of sediment

deposited at the mouth of
a river when flow velocity
decreases
Surface marked by shifting
distributary channels
Shape of a delta depends
on whether its wave-
dominated, tide-dominated,
or stream-dominated
The Ganges River Delta
 Sediment Deposition
Alluvial fan - large, fan- or cone-shaped pile of sediment that
forms where stream velocity decreases as it emerges from a
narrow mountain canyon onto a flat plain
Well-developed in desert regions, such as the southwestern U.S.
Larger fans show grading from large sediments nearest the mountains to
finer sediments farther away
 Flooding
When water levels rise and overtop
the banks of a river, flooding occurs
Natural process on all rivers
Described by recurrence intervals
A 100-year flood is, on average, the size
of the largest flood within a 100-year
period of time
Can cause great damage in heavily
populated areas
High velocity and large volume of
water causes flood erosion
Slowing of waters as flood ends causes
flood deposits (usually of silt or clay-
sized particles) to be deposited in the
floodplain
 Flooding
Urban flooding
Paved areas and storm sewers
increase runoff by inhibiting
infiltration
Rapid delivery of water to streams
increases peak discharge and
hastens occurrence of flood
Flash floods
Local, sudden floods of large
volume and short duration
Typically triggered by heavy
thunderstorms
 Flooding
Flood control
Dams designed to trap flood
waters in reservoirs upstream and
release it gradually over time
Artificial levees designed to
increase capacity of river channel
Works well until stream overtops
artificially raised levees, leading to
extremely rapid flooding and erosion
Wise land-use planning, including
prevention of building within 100-
year floodplains, is most effective
 Stream Valley Development
Downcutting
Process of deepening a valley by erosion of the
streambed
V-shaped valleys typically form from downcutting
combined with mass wasting and sheet erosion
Streams cannot erode below their base level
Basel level can be sea level, a lake, or the bottom of
a closed basin (e.g., Death Valley, CA)
Downcutting rate can be rapid if a stream is well
above base level (e.g., Grand Canyon, AZ)
 Stream Valley Development
Graded streams
Characteristic concave-up longitudinal profile
Rapids and waterfalls have been smoothed out
by extensive erosion over a long period of time
Delicate balance between available sediment load
and transport capacity
Lateral erosion widens stream valleys by
undercutting of stream banks and valley walls
as stream swings from side to side across the
valley floor
Headward erosion is the slow
uphill growth of a valley above
its original source by gullying,
mass wasting, and sheet erosion
 Stream Valley Development

Stream terraces
Step-like landforms found above a
stream and its floodplain
Occurs when river rapidly cuts
downward into its own floodplain
Represents relatively sudden
change in rate of erosion
Can be caused by rapid uplift,
drops in base level, changes in
underlying lithology or climate
changes
The Colorado: a meandering stream
The Colorado: downcutting due to tectonic uplift
 Stream Valley Development

Incised meanders
Retain sinuous pattern as they
cut vertically downward
May be produced by profound
base level changes, as when
rapid tectonic uplift occurs
 Stream Valleys on Mars
Evidence of different climate in past
Liquid water not stable on surface of
Mars under present conditions
Too cold
Atmospheric pressure too low
Stream channels and terraces suggest
long-term erosion by flowing water
Lack of smaller tributaries is puzzling,
but these do exist for channels networks
in more ancient terrains on Mars
Requires warmer, wetter Mars
NASA missions targeting such locations
 Lecture Outlines
Physical Geology, 11/e

Plummer, McGeary &

Carlson
 Mass Wasting
Mass wasting is downhill movement of
masses of bedrock, rock debris or soil,
driven by the pull of gravity
Landslides have been far more costly
in the U.S., in terms of both lives and
dollars, than all other geologic and
weather hazards combined
Mass wasting is, with proper planning,
perhaps the most easily avoidable of all
major geologic hazards
 Classification of Mass Wasting
Types of mass wasting are
classified based on:
Rate of movement
Wide range from < 1cm/year to
>100 km/hour
Type of material
Did moving mass start out as
solid bedrock or as debris
(unconsolidated material at
Earths surface)
Type of movement
Flow, slide, or fall
 Classification of Mass Wasting
Types of movement
Flow
Descending mass moves downhill
as a viscous fluid
Slide
Descending mass remains
relatively intact, and descends
along well-defined surfaces
Translational slide - movement
along plane parallel to motion
Rotational slide (slump) - movement
along a curved surface
Fall
Material free-falls or bounces down a cliff
Factors Controlling Mass Wasting
Factors making mass wasting likely:
Steep slopes
Shear forces maximized by gravity
Large relief
(large elevation change from top of
mountains/hills to valley floor)
Thick layer(s) of loose rock,
debris, soil
Presence of water
Lubricates moving rocks/debris/soil
Lack of vegetation
No roots to hold rock/soil in place
Seismic (earthquake) activity
Factors Controlling Mass Wasting
 Common Types of Mass Wasting
Creep (or soil creep)
Very slow downslope
movement of soil
Major contributing factors
include water in soil and daily
freeze-thaw cycles
Can be costly to maintain homes,
etc., on creeping ground as
foundations, walls, pipes and
driveways crack and shift
downslope over time
 Common Types of Mass Wasting
Debris flow - mass wasting in which
motion takes place throughout the moving
mass (flow)
Earthflow - debris moves downslope, slowly or
rapidly, as a viscous fluid
Commonly occurs on steep hills, with thick
debris cover, after heavy rains
Solifluction is an example
Mudflow - flowing mixture of debris and water,
usually down a channel
Most likely to occur on steep unvegetated slopes
with thick debris cover
Heavy rains on the slopes of stratocone
volcanoes with fresh ash layers often triggers
Debris avalanches are very rapid and turbulent
Can reach speeds of several hundred km/hr
 Types of Mass Wasting
Rockfall - when a block of bedrock breaks
free and falls or bounces down a cliff
Commonly an apron of fallen rock fragments
(talus) accumulates at cliff base
Rockslide - the rapid sliding of a mass of
bedrock along an inclined surface of
weakness
Rock avalanche - a very rapidly moving,
turbulent mass of broken-up bedrock
Debris slide - a coherent mass of debris
moving along a well-defined surface
Debris fall - a free-falling mass of debris
 Preventing Landslides
Preventing mass wasting of debris
Construct retaining wall with drains
Dont oversteepen slopes during
construction
Preventing rockfalls and rockslides
on highways
Remove all rock that is prone to sliding
Stitch together outcrop
Important to know the susceptibility of
land to mass wasting before building any
road or structure!