Networking Concepts

Networks
A group of two or more computer systems linked
together is network.
Used to connect computers and computer equipment in
a building, around the country, across the world, to
enable electronic communications.
following characteristics are used to categorize different types of networks:

topology : The geometric arrangement of a computer

system.
Common topologies include a bus, star, and ring.
protocol : The protocol defines a common set of rules
and signals that computers on the network use to
communicate.
One of the most popular protocols for LANs is called
Ethernet.
architecture : Networks can be broadly classified as
using either a peer-to-peer or client/server
architecture.
Nodes: Computers on a network are sometimes
called nodes.
Servers: Computers and devices that allocate
resources for a network are called servers.
Telecommunications

The electronic transmission of signals for

communications;
It enables organizations to link computer systems into
effective networks.
Refers to all types of data transmission, from voice to
video.
Analog and Digital
Analogue & Digital Signals

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Almost everything in the world can be described or
represented in one of two forms: analog or digital.
The principal feature of analog representations is
that they are continuous.
In contrast, digital representations consist of values
measured at discrete intervals.
Analog and Digital Signals
In a communication system, data are propagated from one
point to another by means of electromagnetic signals.
Signal generated by the transmitter.
Analog signal
Propagated over a variety of media: wire, fiber optic, space
Continuously varying according to the source information
Speech bandwidth: 100Hz to 7kHz
Video bandwidth: 4MHz
Digital signal
A sequence of voltage pulses
Almost unlimited bandwidth

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Analog Transmission
Analog transmission is a means of transmitting analog signals
without regard to their content.
The signals may represent analog or digital data.
In either case, the analog signal will become weaker after a certain
distance.
Therefore, the analog transmission system includes amplifiers to boost
the energy in the signal.
Unfortunately, the amplifier also amplifies noise.
With amplifiers cascaded to achieve long distances, the signal becomes
more and more distorted.
For analog data such a voice, quite a bit of distortion can be tolerated and the
data remain intelligible.
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission is concerned with the content of the
signal.
It can use digital signal, or analog signal.
Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
A repeater receives the signal, recovers the pattern of 1s and
0s, regenerates the signal, and retransmits the signal.
Amplifiers cannot do this, as the signal has no meaning of 0
or 1
Attenuation is overcome, noise is not cumulative.
Modem
Modem
Acronym for modulator-demodulator.
A modem is a device or program that enables a computer
to transmit data over telephone lines.
Computer information is stored digitally, whereas
information transmitted over telephone lines is
transmitted in the form of analog waves.
A modem converts between these two forms.
Modulates a digital signal into an analog signal for
transmission via analog medium, then demodulates the
signal into digital for receiving.
Hub
A hub is the connection point in a computer device
where data from many directions converge and are
then sent out in many directions to respective devices.
A hub may also act as a switch by preventing specific
data packets from proceeding to a destination.
Multiplexer
Multiplexer
A communications device that multiplexes (combines) several signals
for transmission over a single medium communications medium at
the same time.
Multiplexing is sending multiple signals or streams of information on
a carrier at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal
and then recovering the separate signals at the receiving end.
A demultiplexer completes the process by separating
multiplexed signals from a transmission line.
Frequently a multiplexer and demultiplexer are combined into a
single device capable of processing both outgoing and
incoming signals.
A multiplexor is sometimes called a mux.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) can be described

by dividing the single high-capacity channel into several
smaller-capacity channels (sub-channel).
Each sub channel transmits data simultaneously using different
frequency so that each sub-channel has its own frequency to
use and is not affecting other sub-channels.
A radio is A good example to explain how FDM works. Note,
that we are only using one broad range of radio frequency and
there are several radio stations broadcasting its service using
different frequency. All we need to do is
to adjust the radio to catch only certain radio broadcast on
certain frequency.
FDM System
FDM of Three Voiceband Signals
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of

putting multiple data streams in a single signal by
separating the signal into many segments, each having
a very short duration.
Each individual data stream is reassembled at the
receiving end based on the timing.
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)

In comparison to TDM, the STDM method analyses

statistics related to the typical workload of each input
device (printer, fax, computer) and determines on-the-fly
how much time each device should be allocated for
data transmission on the cable or line.
STDM provides a better way of using idle devices on
multiplexed TDM environment. While in TDM, certain
amount of time is dedicated to certain
devices whether they are using it or not, STDM is able to
define how much time should be allocated for frequent
devices
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Multiple beams of light at different frequency
Carried by optical fiber
A form of FDM
Each colour of light (wavelength) carries separate data channel.
The term wavelength-division multiplexing is commonly
applied to an optical carrier (which is typically described by its
wavelength), whereas frequency-division multiplexing typically
applies to a radio carrier (which is more often described by
frequency). Since wavelength and frequency are tied together
through a simple directly inverse relationship, in which the
product of frequency and wavelength equals c (the propagation
speed of light), the two terms actually describe the same
concept.
Transmission modes

A given transmission on a communications channel

between two machines can occur in several different
ways. The transmission is characterised by:
the direction of the exchanges
the transmission mode: the number of bits sent
simultaneously
synchronization between the transmitter and receiver
Transmission modes
Transmission mode means transferring of data
between two devices.
It is also called communication mode. These modes
direct the direction of flow of information. There are
three types of transmission mode. They are :
Simplex Mode
Half duplex Mode
Full duplex Mode
Simple Mode
In this type of transmission mode data can be sent
only through one direction i.e. communication is
unidirectional.
We cannot send a message back to the sender.
Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex
Systems.
Examples of simplex Mode is loudspeaker, television
broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and
monitor etc.
Half duplex
In half duplex system we can send data in both
directions but it is done one at a time that is when the
sender is sending the data then at that time we cant
send the sender our message. The data is sent in one
direction.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which
message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in
both the directions.
FULL DUPLEX Mode

In full duplex system we can send data in both

directions as it is bidirectional. Data can be sent in
both directions simultaneously. We can send as well as
we receive the data.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in
which there is communication between two persons by
a telephone line, through which both can talk and
listen at the same time.
Packet
In computer networks, a packet is a container or box
that carries data over a TCP/IP network and
internetworks. A packet is the most fundamental
logical arbitration of data that is passed over a network.
A packet normally represents the smallest amount of
data that can traverse over a network at a single time. A
TCP/IP network packet contains several pieces of
information, including the data it is carrying, source
destination IP addresses, and other constraints required
for quality of service and packet handling.
Switching
Switching, as applied to networking and IT, is the
practice of directing a signal or data element toward a
particular hardware destination. Switching may be
applied in various formats and can function in diverse
ways within a greater network infrastructure.
Circuit Switching

In circuit switching, networks develop dedicated

channels for transmissions.
It involves setting up specific design circuits or lines
for a network route. With this particular route
established, the sender is free to deliver a series of data
pieces to recipient.
Packet switching
Packet switching is a digital network transmission
process in which data is broken into suitably-sized
pieces or blocks for fast and efficient transfer via
different network devices.
When a computer attempts to send a file to another
computer, the file is broken into packets so that it can
be sent across the network in the most efficient way.
These packets are then routed by network devices to
the destination.
Types of Computer Network
Local Area Network (LAN)

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical

areas such as an office, group of buildings or a factory.
LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to
troubleshoot. Personal computers and workstations
are connected to each other through LANs.
LAN can be a simple network like connecting two
computers, to share files and network among each
other while it can also be as complex as
interconnecting an entire building.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called

MAN and uses the similar technology as LAN.
It is designed to extend over the entire city. It can be
means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger
network or it can be a single cable. It is mainly hold
and operated by single private company or a public
company.
Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be

public leased network.
It is used for the network that covers large distance
such as cover states of a country.
It is not easy to design and maintain. Communication
medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links.
Wireless Network

It is the fastest growing segment of computer.

They are becoming very important in our daily life
because wind connections are not possible in cars or
aeroplane.
We can access Internet at any place avoiding wire
related troubles.. These can be used also when the
telephone systems gets destroyed due to some
calamity/disaster.
Reference Models in Communication Networks

The most important reference models are :

OSI reference model.
TCP/IP reference model.
Introduction to ISO-OSI Model:

There are many users who use computer network and

are located all over the world.
To ensure national and worldwide data communication
ISO (ISO stands for International Organization of
Standardization.) developed this model.
This is called a model for open system interconnection
(OSI) and is normally called as OSI model.
OSI model architecture consists of seven layers. It
defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system.
Introduction to ISO-OSI Model:
Feature of OSI Model :

Big picture of communication over network is

understandable through this OSI model.
We see how hardware and software work together.
We can understand new technologies as they are
developed.
Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
Can be used to compare basic functional relationships
on different networks.
Functions of Different Layers :
Layer 1: The Physical Layer :

It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
It is responsible for transmission and reception of the
unstructured raw data over network.
Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in
the physical layer.
It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or
optical signals.
Data encoding is also done in this layer.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer :

Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be

transmitted over the physical layer.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed
by this layer.
This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames
received and sent respectively. Resending of non-
acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also
manages the Frame traffic control over the network. It signals the
transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full
Layer 3: The Network Layer :

It routes the signal through different channels from

one node to other.
It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet
traffic.
It decides by which route data should take.
It divides the outgoing messages into packets and
assembles the incoming packets into messages for
higher levels.
Layer 4: Transport Layer :

It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or

single path.
Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on
the data are done by this layer
It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert
the message into smaller units and passes it on to the
Network layer.
Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the
network requirements.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so
that they are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
Layer 5: The Session Layer :

Session layer manages and synchronize the

conversation between two different applications.
Transfer of data from source to destination session
layer streams of data are marked and are
resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the
messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is
avoided
Layer 6: The Presentation Layer :

Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such

a way that the receiver will understand the information
(data) and will be able to use the data.
While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms
the data to be ready for the application layer.
Languages(syntax) can be different of the two
communicating systems. Under this condition
presentation layer plays a role of translator.
It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data
conversion etc.
Layer 7: Application Layer :

It is the topmost layer.

Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user
is also done in this layer. Mail services, directory
services, network resource etc are services provided by
application layer.
This layer mainly holds application programs to act
upon the received and to be sent data.
Merits of OSI reference model:
OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and
protocols.
Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless
service.
Demerits of OSI reference model:
Model was devised before the invention of protocols.
Fitting of protocols is tedious task.
It is just used as a reference model.
Introduction to TCP/IP REFERENCE Model

TCP/IP is transmission control protocol and internet

protocol.
Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible
communication over the internet.
These protocols describe the movement of data
between the host computers or internet and offers
simple naming and addressing schemes.
Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol

was developed by Department of Defence's Project Research Agency
(ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network
interconnection to connect remote machines.
The features that stood out during the research, which led to making
the TCP/IP reference model were:
Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a
network was easy.
The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the
source and destination machines were functioning.
The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk
to(send data packets) another application running on different
computer.
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

Lowest layer of the all.

Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the
packets can be sent over it.
Varies from host to host and network to network.
Layer 2: Internet layer

Selection of a packet switching network which is

based on a connectionless internetwork layer is called
a internet layer.
It is the layer which holds the whole architecture
together.
It helps the packet to travel independently to the
destination.
Order in which packets are received is different from
the way they are sent.
IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
Layer 3: Transport Layer

It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or

single path.
Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on
the data is done by transport layer.
The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
Transport layer adds header information to the data.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so
that they are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in
sequence.
Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at

the top of the protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP,
DNS etc.
TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows
connecting to a remote machine and run applications on it.
FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer
amongst computer users connected over a network. It is reliable,
simple and efficient.
SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed
via a route.
DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual
address for Hosts connected over a network.
Merits of TCP/IP model
It operated independently.
It is scalable.
Client/server architecture.
Supports a number of routing protocols.
Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP
In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
The model cannot be used in any other application.
Replacing protocol is not easy.
It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols
What is Bandwidth?

In computer networking, the term "bandwidth" refers to

the data rate supported by a network interface.
Bandwidth represents the capacity of a network
connection for supporting data transfers.
Higher network bandwidth often translates to better
performance, although overall performance also depends
on other factors.
The term derives from the field of electrical engineering,
where bandwidth represents the total distance or range
between the highest and lowest signals on a
communication channel (band).
Computer network bandwidth is measured in units of
bits per second (bps). Most modern network devices
support data rates of thousands and often millions or
even billions of bps (units of Kbps, Mbps and Gbps).
The term asynchronous is usually used to describe communications in
which data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady
stream. For example, a telephone conversation is asynchronous because
both parties can talk whenever they like. If the communication were
synchronous, each party would be required to wait a specified interval
before speaking.
The difficulty with asynchronous communications is that the receiver
must have a way to distinguish between valid data and noise. In computer
communications, this is usually accomplished through a special start bit
and stop bit at the beginning and end of each piece of data. For this
reason, asynchronous communication is sometimes called start-
stop transmission.
Most communications between computers and devices are asynchronous.
Expert System
An expert system is
A computer application that performs a task that would
otherwise be performed by a human expert gives the
computer the ability to make suggestions and to act like
an expert in a particular field.
Examples: diagnose human illnesses, make financial
forecasts, schedule routes for delivery vehicles.
Expert systems typically include artificial
intelligence
Artificial intelligence
The branch of computer science concerned with making
computers behave like humans.
The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Artificial intelligence includes :
Games playing: programming computers to play games such as
chess and checkers
Expert systems : programming computers to make decisions in real- life
situations (for example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose
diseases based on symptoms)
Natural language : programming computers to understand natural
human languages
Artificial Intelligence
Neural networks : Systems that simulate intelligence
by attempting to reproduce the types of physical
connections that occur in animal brains.
Robotics : programming computers to see and hear
and react to other sensory stimuli.

Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that

is, are able to simulate human behavior).
The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games
playing. The best computer chess programs are now capable
of beating humans.
Artificial Intelligence
In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent
the future of artificial intelligence and of computers in
general.
To date, however, they have not lived up to expectations.
Many expert systems help human experts in such fields as
medicine and engineering, but they are very expensive to
produce and are helpful only in special situations.
Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural
networks, which are proving successful in a number of
disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language
processing.
Internet & Intranet
Internet
The worlds largest telecommunications network
A network of networks
Free exchange of information
A global network connecting millions of computers
Intranet
A network that uses Internet technology within an
organization
A network belonging to an organization
World Wide Web (WWW)
World Wide Web is a collection of pages on the
Internet which display a variety of information that
can be accessed by people all over the world.