CHAPTER 5

CELL DIVISION

Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof

The necessity for cell division:
-To replace the dead cells that have dropped off
-Help to heal the wound
-Enable hair to grow
-To replace the broken fingernails

Cell division:
-Nuclear division * Mitosis
* Meiosis
-Cytoplasmic division * Cytokinesis
Mitosis:
- the process where every cell in body
capable of making a copy of itself
- results in 2 daughter cells that are
genetically identical to the parent cell
- occurs actively in the meristems at the tips
of the roots and shoots
- meristematic tissues are found in the:
*terminal buds
*vascular cambium
*cork cambium
#make plants faster growth & elongation of plant
2 types of cells in a sexually reproducing organism:
* somatic cell all body cells except the reproductive
cells
- undergoes mitosis
* reproductive cells
- gametes
- undergoes meiosis
 Chromosome structure

composed of DNA and protein (histones) all

tightly wrapped up in one package
duplicated chromosomes are connected by a
centromere
 The Cell Cycle

mitosis -
nuclear/chemical events
resulting in two daughter
nuclei which have
identical genetic material
to each other and to the
mother cell

cytokinesis - division of
the cytoplasm. This
usually occurs with
G1 - first gap
S - DNA synthesis (replication)
mitosis, but in some
G2 - second gap organisms this is not so
M - mitosis
 Process in which a 2n cell undergoes
nuclear division
MEIOSIS 1) Meiosis I
2) Meiosis II
to produce four n nuclei
leads to the formation of:
1) gametes in animals
2) spores in plants

Human OCCURS: Plant

Testes in males Anthers

Ovaries in female Ovaries

 MEIOSIS DIVISION

MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II
prophase I prophase I
metaphase I metaphase I
anaphase I anaphase I
telophase I telophase I

Begins with a single diploid End with four haploid

parent cell. daughter cells are produced

* In meiosis, although of each chromosome cell undergo

two nuclear division, the DNA of each chromosome only
Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof replicates once.
Glossary:

diploid the condition of having two sets of chromosomes per

nucleus.
Example: somatic cell.

haploid the condition of having one set of chromosomes per

nucleus.
Example: reproductive cell.

homologous chromosome
similar in morphology and genetic constituent.
- humans (23 pairs of chromosomes):
1) one member of each pairs is inherited from
the mother.
2) one member of each pairs is inherited from
the father.
 MEIOSIS I

Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof

 homologous chromosomes synapse, forming tetrad;
Prophase I nuclear envelope break down.

tetrads line up on cells midplane.

Metaphase I tetrads held together at chiasmata (sites of prior
crossing over.

homologous chromosomes separate & move to

Anaphase I opposite poles.
note the sister chromatids remain attached at their
centromere.

one of each pair of homologous chromosome is at

Telophase I
each pole.
cytokinesis occurs.
Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof
MEIOSIS II
 chromosomes condense again following a brief
Prophase II period of interkinesis.
DNA does not replicate again.

Metaphase II chromosomes line up along cells midplane

sister chromatids separate.

Anaphase II
chromosomes move to opposite poles.

Telophase II nuclei formed at opposite poles of each cell.

cytokinesis occurs.
Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof
 RESULTS:

Haploid four gametes (animal) or four spores (plant) are

cell produced.

Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof

 Preceded by interphase, during
which replication of DNA and
MEIOSIS I organelles takes place and energy
store is built up to be used later.

-are identical to the corresponding

stages in mitosis
MEIOSIS II - results in the separation of sister
chromatids.
 the chromosome condense,
shorter, thicker & clearly chromosomes condense &
visible. shorten.
homologous maternal & nuclear membrane breaks
paternal chromosome pair up down.
in a process called synapsis to the spindle fibre re-form in
form bivalent. each daughter cell.
crossing-over occurs. Non-
sister chromatids exchange
segments of DNA. Results in a
new combination of genes on a
chromosome.
chiasmata: the point which
segments of
chromatids cross
over.
nucleolus
Puan &YUsof
Suhada Rafizah Md nuclear
membrane break down.
 the chromosomes are
lined up side as tetrads
on the metaphase plate.
the chromosomes are
still in homologous pairs.
one chromosome of
each pair is attached to
the spindle fibre from the
opposite pole.
the centromere does not
divide yet.
Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof
the chromosomes, each
still made up of sister
chromatids are
positioned randomly on
the metaphase plate
with the sister
chromatids of each
chromosome pointing
towards the opposite
poles.
each sister chromatids
is attached to the
spindle fibres at the
centromere.
 homologous pairs of
chromosomes separate &
more to opposite poles.
each chromosomes still
consists two sister
chromatids which move
as a single unit.
the chromosome
number is halved.
Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof
the centromeres of the
sister chromatids are
separate.
the sister chromatids of
each chromosome are
now individual
chromosomes.
the chromosomes
move towards the
opposite poles of the
cell.
 finally, the nucleoli &
the chromosomes arrive
nuclear membranes re-
at the poles.
form.
each pole has a haploid
the spindle fibres
daughter nucleus
break down.
because it contains only
cytokinesis follows & 4
one set of chromosomes.
haploid daughter cells
the spindle fibres
are formed, each
disappear.
containing half the
the nuclear membrane
number of chromosomes
reappears to surround
& is genetically different
each set of chromosomes.
from the parent diploid
the nucleolus then
cell.
reappears in each
these haploid cells
nucleus.
Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof

develop into gametes.

 MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II
PROPHASE I PROPHASE II
synapsis of homologous there is no synapsis of homologous
chromosomes. chromosomes.
chiasmata form & crossing-over chiasmata formation & crossing over
between non-sister chromatids occurs. do not occur.
METAPHASE I METAPHASE II
bivalents (homologous pairs of individual chromosomes line up across
chromosomes) line up across the the equator of the spindle fibres in the
equator of the spindle fibres in the cell. cell.
ANAPHASE I ANAPHASE II
homologous chromosomes separate & the sister chromatids separate & move
move to opposite poles. to opposite poles.
the sister chromatids are still joined each chromatid is now called a
by centromere. daughter chromosome.
TELOPHASE I TELOPHASE II
Two haploid cells form. 4 haploid cells form.
Meiosis I is a reduction division. At the end of Meiosis II, each daughter
the number of chromosomes in each cell contains a haploid number of
daughter cell is half of that of the
Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof
chromosomes (each sister chromatid is
parent cell. now a daughter chromosome)
 the process of producing clones genetically
identical organisms through asexual
reproduction.

TISSUE
CULTURE

TRANSGENIC
Applied in: PLANTS

ANIMAL
Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof
CLONING
 - the growth of tissues of living organisms in a suitable
TISSUE
CULTURE
and sterile culture medium, containing nutrients and
growth hormone. Etc. : cytokinin and auxin.

Explants callus embryos plantlet adult plant

TRANSGENIC - Carry foreign genes that have been introduced

PLANTS into the chromosome.

Example: crops which are resistant to herbicide, pests and diseases.

ANIMAL - The transfer of the nucleus from a somatic cell to

CLONING an ovum or embryonic cell with the nucleus
removed.
Example: Dolly (sheep), cows, mice and pig.
Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof
 large numbers of cloned young
plant which are characteristically
Advantages and genetically identical to the
parent plant can be propagate by
the tissue culture technique.

clones do not show any genetic

variation.
Disadvantages - all clones share the same
level of resistance to
certain diseases or pest.

Puan Suhada Rafizah Md YUsof