Basicaerodynamics Atmosphere

AVAF 209 Structures II
III. Basic Aerodynamics

A. The Atmosphere
B. Physics
C. The Airfoil
D. Lift & Drag
E. Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight Controls
10/24/2017 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 1

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
F. Large Aircraft Flight
Controls
Aerodynamics:
The study of objects in motion
through the air and the forces that
produce or change such motion

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Controls
The Atmosphere
In order to fly, we need to create an
upward force equal to the weight of the
aircraft by using the Atmosphere
This force comes from the action of the
atmosphere on an airfoil

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Controls
The Atmosphere
Is made of a mixture of gases
21% Oxygen
78% Nitrogen
Rest is mix of inert gases (Argon, Neon, etc.)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Controls
The Atmosphere
Mixture remains constant regardless of altitude
Weight of air changes as altitude changes
Less weight above as we go up = less
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE exerted on
objects

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
The Atmosphere Controls
STANDARD DAY
CONDITIONS
International Civil
Aeronautics
Organization
(ICAO) has set
standards for test
data

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
CONDITIONS
Allows
comparison of test
data from one
location or day to
any other in world

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
Is a force created by the weight of the
atmosphere above an object
Is measured in IN-HG, MM-HG, PSI, or
MILLIBARS

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
In-Hg or mm-Hg
A tube is filled with
Mercury (Hg) and
then inverted in a
container of Mercury
Hg will rise and
height is measured

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
In-Hg or mm-Hg
On a Standard Day
at SEA LEVEL (zero
altitude), the height
will be 29.92 inches
29.92 in-Hg) or 760
millimeters (760 mm-
Hg)
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
In-Hg or mm-Hg
This is called an
ABSOLUTE SCALE
measurement as a
VACUUM will form in
the top of the tube (=
ABSOLUTE ZERO
PRESSURE)
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure
will decrease by approx.
1 in-Hg for every 1,000
feet increase in altitude
Known as the
LAPSE RATE

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
An ALTIMETER
measures absolute
pressure and displays the
result in Feet Above Sea
Level (ASL)
Notice KOLLSMAN
WINDOW (adjust to varying
local conditions)
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
PSI
Is a measurement
of FORCE / AREA
The most common
units are POUNDS
PER SQUARE INCH

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
PSI
On a Standard Day
at Sea Level, the
atmosphere pushes
on objects with a
force of 14.69
pounds per square
inch of area
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
PSI
Since of the air in
the atmosphere is
below 18,000 feet
ASL, the pressure
there is 7.34 psi

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
PSI
Is measured by an
Absolute scale and
is labeled PSIA

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
Or a GAUGE scale
which uses
Atmospheric Pressure
as the zero reference
(= PSIG)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Pressure
Millibars
Are used by Meteorologists (weather forecasters)
Standard Day at Sea Level is 1013.2 mbs
1 millibar approximately equals .75 in-Hg

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Temperature
Four scales used:
Celsius (used to
be Centigrade)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Temperature
Four scales used:
Kelvin (Absolute
Celsius)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Temperature
Four scales used:
Fahrenheit

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Temperature
Four scales used:
Rankine
(Absolute
Fahrenheit)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Temperature
Standard Day at
Sea Level:
15o Celsius
59o Fahrenheit
2880 Kelvin
519o Rankine

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Temperature
As we go up in
altitude,
temperature goes
down
3.54o F or 2o C per
1,000 feet
ADIABATIC LAPSE
RATE
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Humidity
Is amount of moisture in air
Measured by RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Is comparison of moisture present to amount air
can hold in percent
Maximum amount is directly proportional to
temperature (hotter temp. = more moisture at
same Relative Humidity %)
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Humidity
Standard Day is 0% humidity or Dry Air

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density
Is measure of Mass per unit Volume
Mass is the amount of matter in an object
Can think of it as number of molecules
Weight is the affect of Gravity on a mass
Since we are dealing with objects near the
surface of the Earth, Weight and Mass are used
interchangeably in Aerodynamics
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density
Air density is officially measured in SLUGS PER
CUBIC FOOT
Standard Day at Sea Level = .002378 slugs/ft3
Formula symbol is the Greek letter Rho ( )
Is a major factor in developing Lift
Varies directly with Atmospheric Pressure and
inversely with Temperature
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Aviation uses
DENSITY ALTITUDE
as important measure
of density affects on
flying

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Is a measure of an
aircrafts performance
(necessary takeoff
distance, necessary
landing distance,
weight-carrying
capability, etc.)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
The altitude in a
Standard Day that has
the same density as
the Ambient
conditions.
Is the altitude the
aircraft thinks its at

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Computed using a
Density Altitude Chart
Must know
PRESSURE
ALTITUDE and
Ambient Temperature

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Pressure Altitude is
altitude in the Standard
Day whose
atmospheric pressure
matches the local
atmospheric pressure

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Press. Alt. Example:
Ambient pressure
of 28.92 in-Hg
Since pressure
decreases 1 in-
Hg/1000 feet,
Pressure Altitude =
1,000 feet ASL
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Dens. Alt. Example:
Pressure Altitude
can also be
determined for the
location you are by
adjusting the
Kollsman window to
29.92 and reading
the altitude
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Dens. Alt. Example:
Pressure = 25.92
in-Hg (= ? feet
Pressure Altitude)
= 4,000 feet
SL (29.92) actual
(25.92) = 4 inches x
1000 ft.
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Dens. Alt. Example:
Pressure = 25.92
in-Hg (= ? feet
Pressure Altitude)
= 4,000 feet
Temperature =
80o F

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Dens. Alt. Example:
Density Altitude =
6,500 feet
6,500

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Also is affected by the
Relative Humidity
Water vapor has
about 62% of weight of
air = higher humidity =
less dense air = higher
Density Altitude
= only affected by
about 5%
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
STANDARD DAY
Density Altitude
Generally speaking:
BEWARE OF HIGH,
HOT AND HUMID
CONDITIONS

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Laws of Physics which affect Controls
Aerodynamics
Bernoulli's Principle
If the total energy of flowing air remains constant,
any increase in KINETIC energy creates a
decrease in POTENTIAL energy
Since the LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY applies, the energies in the flow are only
changed

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Aerodynamics
Kinetic
energy is
measured
as Velocity
Potential
energy is
measured
as Pressure
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Aerodynamics
In throat
of venturi:
Velocity
goes up so
all air gets
through in
same time =
pressure
down
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Aerodynamics
Newtons Laws
First Law:
Law of Inertia
A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body
in motion tends to remain in motion, until acted
upon by an outside force.

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Aerodynamics
Newtons Laws
Second Law:
Law of Acceleration
Acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the
force applied and inversely proportional to the mass
of the body or a = F / m
Or more useful to us: F = ma

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Aerodynamics
Newtons Laws
Third Law
Law of Reaction
For every Action there is an Equal and
Opposite Reaction

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
The Airfoil Controls
Flight Forces
As we looked at
before, there are four
forces being applied to
an airplane in flight:
Lift (up)
Weight (down)
Thrust (forward)
Drag (aft)
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Flight Forces
In order to understand these forces, we need to look at
VECTORS:

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Flight Forces
A Vector is an arrow whose length shows a value and it
points in the direction the value is being applied

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Flight Forces
To combine vectors, we place them with their starting
points joined (as on the left below)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Flight Forces
And by COMPLETING THE SQUARE we can get the
RESULTANT vector (the combination of the other two)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Flight Forces
If two forces are exactly opposing each other (such as Lift
and Weight) and have the same value, the resultant is zero

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Flight Forces
In STRAIGHT AND
LEVEL,
UNACCELERATED
FLIGHT, Thrust and Drag
are equal, Lift and Weight
are equal, and the aircraft
continues in a straight line
with no change in altitude
The forces are said to be
in EQUILIBRIUM
Author: Harry L. Whitehead 54
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Flight Forces
In order to climb, we
must increase the Lift
Vector so there is no
longer an equilibrium
between Lift and Weight
The Resultant of the
two is an upward force

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Flight Forces
In order to go faster
(Accelerate), we must
increase the Thrust
vector to get a Resultant
forward
Etc.

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Flight Forces
Thrust is created by the
POWERPLANT and
PROPELLER
Weight is the effect of
Gravity on the aircraft
Drag is created by
movement of the aircraft
Lift is created by the
Airfoils used as Wings
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
An Airfoil is a specially
designed surface which
produces a reaction to
air flowing across it
Two theories:
Bernoullis Principle
Newtons Laws

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Subsonic airfoils can be

Asymmetrical or
Symmetrical
Most airplanes use
Asymmetrical wings
Blunt, rounded
LEADING EDGE
Max. thickness about
1/3 of distance from L.E.
to TRAILING EDGE

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
There are many basic airfoil shapes

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Early were very thin with definite

camber
The Clark-Y was the standard through
the 1930s
NACA developed the modern
asymmetrical shape in the 30s and it
was used for decades = smoother
airflow and greater lift with less drag
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
As aircraft started Supersonic

to get near Mach airfoils were
1, the subsonic designed with
shapes caused sharp Leading and
shock waves to Trailing edges and
form and destroy the max thickness
lift and increase about of the
drag tremendously chord distance

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Next came the Supercritical design
Reduces the velocity of the air
over the upper surface and delays
the drag rise occurring with the
approach of Mach 1
NASA developed the GAW series for
General Aviation aircraft and give
higher lift with lesser drag than the
modern
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Lift and Drag Controls
In order to generate Lift,

an Airfoil must have an
ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
This is defined as the
angle between the
CHORD and the
RELATIVE WIND (=
opposite the FLIGHT
PATH)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
Dont confuse this with
the ANGLE OF
INCIDENCE
The angle formed
between the Chord
and the Longitudinal
Axis of the airplane

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
If the is positive =
the Leading Edge is
higher than the Trailing
Edge = generate Lift in
the Upward direction
Negative =
downward Lift

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
As the increases, the
amount of Lift also
increases
Airfoil simulation

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
This can be shown graphically using the

COEFFICIENT OF LIFT or CL
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
Notice the CL is positive even to a small negative

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
And the CL peaks at some positive

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
Also, the CL starts to drop off if the gets higher

This is called a STALL and starts at CLmax or CRITICAL
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
Stall is a SEPARATION OF AIRFLOW from the

upper wing surface = rapid decrease in lift
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
This occurs at the same regardless of speed,

aircraft weight, or flight attitude
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()
To eliminate this condition = reduce the below

critical
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Other Factors Affecting Lift:

Airspeed
Faster = increased Lift
Lift is increased as the square of the speed
For example:
At 200 mph a wing has 4 times the lift of the
same airfoil at 100 mph
At 50 mph the lift is as much as at 100 mph
Airfoil simulation

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Wing Planform
View of the wing from above or below

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Wing Planform
Rectangular: excellent slow flight and stall occurs
first at root of wing (= good aileron control)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Wing Planform
Elliptical: most efficient = least drag for given size but
difficult to manufacture and stalls all along Trail. Edge

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Wing Planform
Modified (or Moderate) Tapered: more efficient than
Rectangular and easier to build than Elliptical but still
stalls along Trailing Edge

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Wing Planform
SweptBack (and Delta): Good efficiency at high
speed but not very good at low

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Camber
Curve of the wing
Increased Camber = increased airflow velocity over
the top surface and more downwash angle = more lift
It also tends to lower the Critical
Trailing Edge Flaps use this to allow more lift at a
slower airspeed for landing and takeoff
Airfoil simulation

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Aspect Ratio
Is the Ratio of the
Wings SPAN to the
average Chord
Higher Aspect Ratio
(long and skinny) =
increased lift and lower
stalling speed
Used on Gliders and
TR-1 spy plane
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Wing Area
Is the total surface area of the wings
Must be sufficient to lift max weight of the aircraft
If wing produces 10.5 pounds of lift per square
foot at normal cruise speed = needs Wing Area of
200 square feet to lift 2,100 pounds of weight
Airfoil simulation

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Drag
Is the force opposing Thrust
Is the force trying to hold the aircraft back as it flies
and generally limits the maximum airspeed
Is created by any aircraft surface that deflects or
interferes with the smooth air flow around the aircraft
Drag is classified as two types:
Induced
Parasite

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Induced Drag
The Airfoil shape (type of airfoil and amount of
Camber) and Wing Area create a force which comes
from the same forces as those which create Lift
It is Directly Proportional to the Angle of Attack ()

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Induced Drag
As increases, the high
pressure on the bottom of
the wing flows around the
wing tips and fills in
some of the low pressure
on top
This creates a WINGTIP
VORTEX and destroys
some of the wings lift or
increases its drag
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Induced Drag
The strength of the
Vortex is proportional to
aircraft speed, weight,
and configuration
These can be dangerous
for small aircraft flying
behind a large aircraft

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Induced Drag
This effect can be reduced

by installing WINGLETS on
the tips of the wings
Reduce the Vortex =
increased lift and
reduced drag

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Induced Drag
This effect can also

be reduced by
installing TIP
TANKS on the tips
of the wings

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Induced Drag
And/or by installing
DROOPED TIPS
Used on STOL
(Short Take Off/
Landing) aircraft or
those designed for
heavy and slow
flight

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Induced Drag
This can also be
shown by looking at the
COEFFICIENT OF
DRAG (CD) of the airfoil
CD is proportional to
Angle of Attack () and
increases as
increases

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Angle of Attack and Drag
By combining the CL and CD curves we get a Family of

curves for any given airfoil
Includes a combination known as Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D)
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Peak L/D (L/Dmax) occurs at a given which is the most

efficient for the airfoil to operate at

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Unfortunately, this may be at too low an to generate

enough lift to fly (may not be able to fly fast enough)

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Parasite Drag
Is the drag produced by the aircraft itself and is
proportional to Airspeed
Is disruption of the airflow around the aircraft
4 types:
Form Drag
Skin Friction Drag
Interference Drag
Profile Drag

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Parasite Drag
Form Drag
Created by any structure which extends into the
airstream
Is directly proportional to the size and shape of
the structure
Includes struts, antennas, landing gear, etc.
Streamlining reduces Form Drag

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Parasite Drag
Skin Friction Drag
Caused by the roughness of the aircrafts skin
Includes paint, rivets, skin seams, etc.
Causes small swirls (eddies) of air = drag
Improved by flush riveting and cleaning and
waxing the skin

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Parasite Drag
Interference Drag
Occurs when various air currents around the
aircraft structure intersect and interact with each
other
Example: mixing of air where fuselage and
wings meet
Improved by installing FAIRINGS

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Parasite Drag
Profile Drag
Drag formed by the Frontal Area of the aircraft
Cant be changed or affected by anything except
Retractable Landing Gear

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Parasite Drag
Combined Parasite
Drag Airspeed Effect
Parasite Drag
increases
exponentially as
airspeed increases
IS LOWEST AT
LOW AIRSPEEDS
and increases
rapidly
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Parasite Drag
Can best be reduced
by Retractable Landing
Gear & streamlining
Weight and
complication is more
than compensated by
decrease in Parasite
Drag at higher
airspeeds

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Total Drag
Induced Drag is also
somewhat dependent
on Airspeed (indirectly)
Since it is Inversely
Proportional to and
since the is highest at
low airspeeds = Induced
Drag is highest at low
airspeeds and drops off
rapidly
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Total Drag
By combining the two
Drag curves, we get Total
Drag
At low airspeeds, Induced
Drag predominates so
curve goes down
At higher airspeeds,
Parasite Drag
predominates so curve
goes up
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Total Drag
At some airspeed it will
be at its lowest value =
most efficient airspeed
to fly at = best Lift/Drag
Ratio or L/Dmax
However, like L/Dmax
when looking at the
curve, it may not be
possible to operate at
this airspeed
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Other Design Considerations

Other factors affect the structure and design of an
aircraft while in flight besides just Lift and Drag
These are:
Load Factor
Propeller Factors
Engine Torque
Gyroscopic Precession
Asymmetrical Thrust
Spiraling Slipstream
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Load Factor
Load Factor is a
function of Banking
an aircraft
You can also think
of it as creating a
curved flight path =
CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE puts more
downward force
(LOAD) on the
structure Author: Harry L. Whitehead 106
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Load Factor
So in order to
maintain altitude =
need to pull back on
the yoke or stick and
increase the
engines power to
increase the overall
Lift component

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Load Factor
Load Factor is the
Ratio of the load
supported by the wings
to the actual weight of
the aircraft
Below about 20o
Bank Angle it is equal
to 1G in force
= the weight is not
being increased
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Load Factor
As the Bank Angle
increases above that
the G-force also goes
up exponentially
For example: at about
60o of Bank, the Load
Factor is 2
The wings feel the
aircraft weighs twice
as much as normal
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Load Factor
The FAA establishes
LIMIT LOAD FACTORS
for airplanes to be
designed to
= the maximum Load
Factor the aircraft can
withstand without
permanent deformation
or structural damage

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Load Factor
For a NORMAL
CATEGORY airplane =
3.8 positive Gs and
1.52 negative Gs
For a UTILITY
CATEGORY = 4.4
positive Gs and 1.76
negative Gs

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Load Factor
For an ACROBATIC
CATEGORY airplane =
6 positive Gs and 3
negative Gs

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Propeller Factors: Torque

Torque is a force
applied to the airplane
from the Reaction to
the spinning Propeller
(Newtons 3rd Law)
It causes a roll to the
left = opposite of the
normal rotation of U.S.
designed engines

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Propeller Factors: Torque

On single-engine
airplanes, its common
to use aileron trim tabs
to compensate
On multi-engine
airplanes, its common
for the engines to
rotate in opposite
directions which
cancels out the Torque
Effect Author: Harry L. Whitehead 114
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Propeller Factors: Gyroscopic Precession

A rotating Propeller
also acts like a
GYROSCOPE and
exhibits two gyroscopic
characteristics:
RIGIDITY IN
SPACE
PRECESSION

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Precession is the
phenomenon which
says that any force
applied to a Gyroscope
is felt 90o later in
direction of rotation

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Any rapid change in
aircraft pitch = a
precessive force
applied to the prop.
Most commonly
felt by Conventional
Gear airplanes just
prior to Takeoff
when the tail wheel
is raised
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

This causes a
downward force
(action) applied to the
prop
Which causes a
reaction 90o later =
yaw to the left

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Propeller Factors: Asymmetrical Thrust

At high aircraft angles
of attack and during
rapid climbs, the prop
blades see differing
angles of attack during
their rotation

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

The side of the prop
disk on which the
prop blade is
descending has a
higher than the
ascending blade =
more lift
NOTE: rotation is
clockwise as viewed
from the pilots seat
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

This change in comes from the vertical movement and
a corresponding change in Relative Wind of the airfoil

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Since the airfoil (prop) is rotating in addition to flying, the
Relative Wind is now made of two factors:

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

The Flight Path vector and a vertical (rotation) vector
Descending blade (right side) = vertical vector is down

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Which gives us a new Relative Wind and a higher

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Since the descending
(right) side of the prop
has a higher it is also
producing more Thrust
The opposite occurs
on the ascending side
and it produces less
Thrust
= tendency to yaw to
left in rapid climb
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Propeller Factors: Spiraling Slipstream

On a single-engine
airplane, the
SLIPSTREAM from the
propeller wraps itself
around the fuselage in a
Spiraling manner
It will generally then
strike the left side of the
Vertical Stabilizer and
cause a yaw to the left
Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Since this is a function
of how much air the prop
is pushing which is
directly proportional to
the Thrust being
produced = more yaw at
higher power settings

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability

Its not uncommon to
find the Vertical Stabilizer
installed with a slight
offset to the left to cause
a constant compensating
force
This is usually set up to
balance the Slipstream
affect during Cruise flight

Basic A.
B.
The Atmosphere
Physics
C. The Airfoil
Aerodynamics D.
E.
Lift & Drag
Stability
Controls

Basicaerodynamics Atmosphere

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AVAF 209 Structures II

III. Basic Aerodynamics

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Subsonic airfoils can be

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There are many basic airfoil shapes

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There are many basic airfoil shapes

Early were very thin with definite

There are many basic airfoil shapes

As aircraft started Supersonic

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There are many basic airfoil shapes

In order to generate Lift,

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In order to generate Lift,

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In order to generate Lift,

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In order to generate Lift,

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In order to generate Lift,

This can be shown graphically using the

In order to generate Lift,