x t X M

sin t
x t T x t
1
f
T
2
2f
T
x t X M sin t

x t X
1 M1
sin t

x t X
2 M2
sin t

x t
XM sin t X sin t 90
2 M

cos t sin t
2

sin t cos t
2
cost cost 180
sin t sin t 180
sin sin cos cos sin
cos cos cos sin sin
sin sin cos cos sin
cos cos cos sin sin
EXAMPLE 8.1

We wish to plot the waveforms for the following functions :

vt 1 cost 45,
vt 1 cost 225and
vt 1 cost 315
SOLUTION : Figure 8.3a shows plot of the function = 1 cos . Figure 8.3b is a plot of
function = 1 cos + 45 . Figure 8.3c is a plot of the function
= 1 cos + 225 . Note that since

= 1 cos + 225 = 1 ( + 180)

this waveform is 180 out of phase with the waveform in Fig. 8.3b; that is
cos + 225 = cos + 45 and Fig 8.3c is the negative of Fig. 8.3b Finally,
since the function

= 1 cos ( 315) = 1 cos 315 + 360 = 1 cos ( + 45)

this function is identical to that shown in Fig. 8.3b.

EXAMPLE 8.2
Determine the frequency and the phase angle between the two voltages
1 = 12 sin 1000 + 60 2 = 6 cos 1000 + 30

SOLUTION : The frequency in Hertz (Hz) is given by the expression

1000
= = 159.2
2 2

Using Eq.(8.9), 2 can be written as

2 = 6 cos + 30 = 6 cos 2( 60)

Now that both voltages of the same frequency are expressed as sine waves with
positive amplitudes, the phase angle between 1 () and 1 60 60 = 120
that is 1 2 120 2 1 120
E8.1 Given the voltage = 120 cos 314 + /4 , determine the frequency of
the volt- age in Hertz and the phase angle in degrees

ANSWER : = 50; = 45

E8.2 Three branch currents in a network are known to be

1 = sin 377 + 45

2 = sin 377 + 10

3 = sin 377 + 60

1 = sin 377 + 45

Determine the phase angles by which 1 2 and 3 .

EXAMPLE 8.3

Consider the circuit in Fig. 8.5. Let us derive the expression for the current
= cos
The KVL equation for this circuit is
()
= + = cos SOLUTION

Since the input forcing function is cos , we assume that the forced
response component of the current is of the form
= cos( + )
which can be written using Eq. (8.11) as
= cos cos sin
= 1 + 2
Note that this is, as we observed in Chapter 7, of the form of the forcing
function cos and its derivative sin . Substituting this form for into
the preceding differential equation yields

+ 1 cos + 2 sin + (1 cos + 2 sin ) = cos

Evaluating the indicated derivative produces
1 + 2 + 1 + 2 =
By equating coefficients of the sine and cosine functions, we obtain
1 + 2 = 0
1 + 2 =
that is, two simultaneous equations in the unknowns 1 and 2 . Solving these two
equations for 1 and 2 yields

1 = 2 +2 2

2 =
2 + 2 2
Therefore,

= 2 + 2
+ 2 2 + 2 2

which, using the last identity in Eq. (8.11), can be written as

= ( + )
where A and are determined as follows:

= 2
+ 2 2

= 2
+ 2 2
Hence,

= =