LN02 11/21/2017

Free vibrations of SDOF systems

If the mass is set in motion by giving it a small initial displacement x0 from its equilibrium
position then it undergoes free vibrations at a rate known as natural frequency.

The solution to above equation

n = the circular natural frequency or angular speed of an equivalent circular motion ( rad/s)

If fn = natural frequency (cycles per second, or Hz)

Tn = time taken for one complete cycle (s)

1 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

Consider the vibration of an SDOF system with damping included but still with no external force

Now the equation of motion

The behavior of this system depends on the relative magnitudes of c, k and m.

If c = 2(km) the system is said to be critically damped and will return to its equilibrium position
without oscillating. In general c is much smaller than this, giving an underdamped system.

The figure below shows the response of SDOF systems with natural period 1 s and different
damping ratios, when released from an initial unit displacement. This damped response differ, from
the underdamped case in two ways: first the oscillations are multiplied by an exponential decay
term ( ), so that they die away quit quickly; second, he natural frequency has been altered by
the factor . However, for practical values of damping this factor is very close to unity. It is
therefore acceptable to neglect damping when calculating natural frequencies.

2 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

So, using the relationships between n, , m, c and k the equation of motion can be written as

3 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

1.7.8 Response to a sinusoidal base motion

Suppose first of all that the ground motion varies sinusoidally with time at a circular frequency, ,
with corresponding period T = 2/ :

Where, Xg is the peak ground displacement.

** Real earthquake ground motion is more complex, but this simplification serves to illustrate the
main characteristic of the response.

Following figures show the variation of structural acceleration with time for a structure with a
natural period of 0.5s and 5% damping, for a variety of frequencies of ground shaking.

4 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

5 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

Three regimes of structural response can be seen as follows.

6 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

The effect of the loading rate on the response of an SDOF structure is summarized in following
figure, for different damping levels. Here the peak absolute displacement of the structure X
(normalized by the peak ground displacement, Xg) is plotted against the ratio of the natural period
Tn to the period of the sinusoidal loading T.

7 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

The same three response regimes are evident in this figure, with the structural motion equal to the
ground motion at the left hand end of the graph, then large resonant amplifications at around
Tn/T=1, and finally very low displacements when Tn/T is large.

At pure resonance i.e Tn/T = 1 X/Xg 1/(2). The peak displacement at resonance is thus very
sensitive to damping, and is infinite for the theoretical case of zero damping. For more realistic
damping ratio of 0.05, the displacement of the structure is around 10 times the ground
displacement.

*** The dynamic amplifications observed under real earthquake loading are rather lower than
those discussed above, both because an earthquake time-history is not a simple sinusoid, and
because it has a finite (usually quite short) duration.

8 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

1.7.9 Response spectra and their application to linear structural systems

An earthquake can be measured and represented as the variation of ground acceleration with time
in three orthogonal directions (N-S, E-W and vertical). Obviously, the exact nature of an earthquake
time-history is unknown in advance, will be different for every earthquake, and indeed will vary
over the affected region due to factors such as local ground conditions, epicentral distance etc.

9 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

Elastic Response Spectra defined in EC8

10 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

EC8 specifies two categories of spectra. Type 1 for areas of high seismicity (defines as Ms > 5.5),
and type 2 for areas of moderate seismicity (Ms 5.5). Within each category, spectra are given for
five different soil types:
A rock ; B very dense sand or gravel, or very stiff clay; C dense sand or gravel , or stiff clay; D
loose to medium cohesionless soil, or soft to firm cohesive soil; E soil profiles with a surface layer
of alluvium of thickness 5-20 m.
The vertical axis is the peak, or spectral acceleration of the elastic structure, denoted by Se,
normalized by ag, the design ground acceleration on type A ground. The spectra are plotted for an
assumed structural damping ratio of 5%.

11 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

1.7.10 Application of response spectra to elastic SDOF systems

This must be in dynamic equilibrium with the stiffness force developed within the structure. If we
define the spectral displacement, SD, as the peak absolute displacement corresponding to the
spectral acceleration, Se, then
kSD = mSe
Using the relationships between mass, stiffness and natural period

12 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

Note -: While the force experienced depends on the mass, the spectral acceleration and
displacement do not they are functions only of the natural period and damping ratio.
It should also be remembered that the spectral acceleration is absolute (i.e it is the acceleration of
the mass relative to the ground plus the ground acceleration, hence proportional to the inertia
force experienced by the mass), but the spectral displacement is the displacement of the mass
relative to the ground (and hence proportional to the spring force).

While elastic spectra are useful tools for design and assessment, they do not account for the
inelasticity that will occur during severe earthquakes. In practice, energy absorption and plastic
redistribution can be used to reduce the design forces significantly. This is dealt with in EC8 by thee
modification of the elastic spectra to give design spectra Sd.

1.7.11 Ductility and behavior factor

Designing structures to remain elastic in large earthquakes is likely to be uneconomic in most cases,
as the force demands will be very large. A more economical design can be achieved by accepting
some level of damage short of complete collapse, and making use of the ductility of the structure
to reduce the force demand to acceptable levels.
Ductility is defined as the ability of a structure or member to withstand large deformations
beyond its yield point (often over many cycles) without fracture.
In earthquake engineering, ductility is expressed in terms of demand and supply. The ductility
demand is the maximum ductility that the structure experiences during an earthquake, which is a
function of both the structure and the earthquake. The ductility supply is the maximum ductility
the structure can sustain without fracture. This is purely a structural property.
13 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

It is essential to ensure that the structure does indeed fail by a ductile mode well before brittle
failure modes develop, i.e. that ductility supply exceeds the maximum ductility demand.
This principle known as Capacity Design

Examples of designing for ductility include:

Ensuring plastic hinges form in beams before columns;

Providing adequate confinement to concrete using closely spaced hoops
Ensuring that steel members fail away from connections
Avoiding large irregularities in structural form
Ensuring flexural strengths are significantly lower that shear strengths.

For SDOF system with a clear yield point the displacement ductility is defined

xmax = maximum displacement

xy = displacement at first yield

Yielding of a structure also has the effect of limiting the peak force that it must sustain. In EC8 this
force reduction is quantified by the behavior factor, q:

Fel = peak force that would be developed in an SDOF system if it

responded to the earthquake elastically.
Fy = yield load of the system

14 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

A well known empirical observation is that, at long periods (>Tc), yielding and elastic structures
undergo roughly the same peak displacement. It follows that, for these structures, the force
reduction is simply equal to the ductility. At shorter periods, the amount of force reduction
achieved for a given ductility reduces.

15 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
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16 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

1.7.12 Ductility modified response spectra (Design Spectra)

To make use of ductility requires the structure to respond non-linearly, meaning that the linear
methods introduced above are not appropriate. However, for an SDOF system, an approximate
analysis can be performed in a very similar way to above by using a ductility modified response
spectrum. In EC8 this is known as the design spectrum, Sd. Figure below shows EC8 design spectra
based on the Type 1 spectrum and soil type C, for a range of behavior factors.

17 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

Over most of the period range (for T TB) the spectral accelerations Sd (and hence the design
forces) are a factor of q times lower than the values Se for the equivalent elastic system. For a
theoretical, infinitely stiff system (zero period), ductility does not imply any reduction in spectral
acceleration, since an infinitely stiff structure will not undergo any deformation and will simply
move with the ground beneath it. A linear interpolation is used between periods of zero & TB.

The ductile displacement is given by

For long period structures (T>Tc) the result of this approach will be that design forces are reduced
by the factor q compared to an elastic design, and the displacement of the ductile system is the
same as for an equivalent elastic system (since q = in this period range). For TB< T < TC the same
force reduction will be achieved but displacements will be slightly greater than the elastic case. For
very stiff structures (T<TB) the benefits of ductility are reduced, with smaller force reductions and
large displacements compared to the elastic case.

18 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

Note-: Use of ductility modified spectra is reasonable for SDOF systems, but should be applied with
caution to MDOF structures. For elastic systems we have seen that an accurate dynamic analysis
can be performed by considering the response of the structure in each of its vibration modes, then
combining the modal responses. A similar approach is widely used for inelastic structures, i.e each
mode is treated as an SDOF system and its ductility-modified response determined as above. The
modal responses are then combined by a method such as SRSS. For linear systems, the method is
based on the fact that any deformation can be treated as a linear combination of the mode shapes.
Once the structure yields, its properties change and these mode shapes no longer apply.
When yielding is evenly spread throughout the structure, the deformed shape of the plastic
structure is likely to be similar to the elastic one, and the ductility modified response spectrum
analysis may give reasonable (though by no mean precise) results. If, however, yielding is
concentrated in certain parts of the structure, such as a soft storey, then this procedure likely to
be substantially in error and one of the non-linear analysis method shall be used.

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B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
1.7.13 Analysis of linear MDOF systems 11/21/2017

Not all structures can be realistically modelled as SDOF systems. Structures with distributed mass
and stiffness may undergo significant deformations in several modes of vibration and therefore
need to be analyzed as MDOF systems. These are not generally amenable to hand solution and so
computer methods are widely used.
For a system with N degrees of freedom it is possible to write a set of equations of motion in
matrix form

20 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
Considering free vibration problem omitting damping term 11/21/2017

Where is the mode shape, which is a function solely of position within the structure. This two can
be solved to

21 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

The figure above shows the sway modes of vibration of a four storey shear type building (i.e one
with relatively stiff floors, so that lateral deformations are dominated by shearing deformation
between floors), with the modes numbered in order of ascending natural frequency (or descending
period).

22 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

1.7.14 Multi-modal response spectrum analysis

Having determined the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the system, we can go on to
analyze the response to an applied load. The equation is a set of N coupled
equations in terms of the N degrees of freedom. This can be most easily solved using the principle
of modal superposition, which states that any set of displacements can be expressed as a linear
combination of the mode shapes:

The coefficients Yi are known as the generalized or modal displacements. The modal displacements
are functions only of time, while the mode shapes are functions only of position. Above equation
allows us to transform the equations of motion into a set of equations in terms of the modal
displacements rather than original degree of freedom.

23 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017
The coefficients Yi are known as the generalized or modal displacements. The modal displacements
are functions only of time, while the mode shapes are functions only of position. So that the above
equation allows to transform the equations of motion into a set of equations in term of the modal
displacements rather than the original degrees of freedom.

Where Y is the vector of modal displacements, and M, C and K are the modal mass, stiffness and
damping matrices. Because of the orthogonality properties of the modes, it turns out that M, C
and K are all diagonal matrices, so that the N number of equations in above equation are
uncoupled, i.e. each mode acts as an SDOF system and is independent of the responses in all other
modes. Then the each line of above equation has the following form.

By analogy with equation for an SDOF system:

24 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

While the above equation could be solved explicitly to give Yi as a function of time for each mode,
it is more normal to use the response spectrum approach.

25 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

To obtain the overall response of the structure, in theory we need to apply above 4 equations to
each mode of vibration and then combine the results. Since there are as many modes as there
are degrees of freedom, this could be an extremely long-winded process. In practice, however,
the scaling factors Li/Mi and Li2/Mi are small for the higher modes of vibration. It is therefore
normally sufficient to consider only a subset of the modes. EC8 offers a variety of ways of
assessing how many modes need to be included in the response analysis. The normal approach is
either to include sufficient modes that the sum of their effective modal masses is at least 90% of
the total structural mass, or to include all modes with an effective modal mass greater than 5%
of the total mass. If these conditions are difficult to satisfy, a permissible alternative is that the
number of modes should be at least 3n where n is the number of storeys, and should include all
modes with periods below 0.2s.

The above 4 equations are giving only the peak values in each mode, and it is unlikely that these
peaks will all occur at the same point in time. Simple combination rules are used to give an
estimate of the total response. Two methods are permitted by EC8.
If the difference in natural period between any two modes is at least 10% of the longer
period, then the modes can be regarded as independent and can be combined using
SRSS (square root of the sum of the squares)
26 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017
If the above condition not met the most widely accepted alternative is the CQC
(complete quadratic combination) (Wilson et al, 1981), which is based on calculating
correlation coefficient between two modes. This is built into many dynamic analysis
computer programs.

Main Steps of the mode superposition procedure

Perform free vibration analysis to find natural periods and corresponding mode
shapes. Estimate damping ratio.
Decide how many modes need to be included in the analysis.
For each mode:
o compute the modal properties Li and Mi
o read the spectral acceleration from the design spectrum
o compute the desired response parameters using relevant equations

Combine modal contributions to give estimates of total response.

27 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017
1.7.15 Equivalent static analysis of MDOF systems

A logical extension of the process of including only a subset of the vibrational modes in the
response calculation is that, in some cases, it may be possible to approximate the dynamic behavior
by considering only a single mode. If the structure can reasonably be assumed to be dominated by
a single (normally the fundamental) mode then a simple static analysis procedure can be used that
involves only minimal consideration of the dynamic behavior. For many years this approach has
been a mainstay of earthquake design codes. In EC8 the procedure as follows.

Estimate the period of the fundamental mode, T1 usually by some simplified

approximate method rather than a detailed dynamic analysis. Use

Check whether equivalent static analysis is permitted T1 < 4Tc

Check the regularity criteria

If these conditions are met, equivalent static method can be used.

For the calculated structural period, the spectral acceleration Se can be obtained from the design
response spectrum. The base shear is then calculated as

28 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017
Where m is the total mass. This is analogous to equation with the ratio Li2/Mi
replaced
by m. takes the value 0.85 for buildings of more than 2 storeys with T1<2Tc, and is 1.0 otherwise.
The total horizontal load is then distributed over the height of the building in proportion to (mass x
mode shape). Normally this is done by making some simple assumption about the mode shape. For
instance, for simple, regular buildings EC8 permits the assumption that the first mode shape is a
straight line (i.e displacement is directly proportional to height). This leads to a storey force at level
k given by:

29 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
Example 01 11/21/2017

The example building represents a hotel, with a single storey podium housing the public spaces of
the hotel, surmounted by a seven storey tower block, comprising a central corridor with bedrooms
to either side. Figures below show a schematic plan, a section and an isometric view of the
building. Assuming the building is regular in plan and elevation (will be shown later) calculate the
followings.

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B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 11/21/2017

T.B.C in LN03 31 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)