Chap04b Dem

Materi kuliah Fotogrametri II,
Chapter 04
Topographic Mapping and Spatial Data Collection
Chapter 04B
Digital Elevation Models

and Indirect Contouring
Compiled & developed by
Saptomo H Mertotaroeno, Ir., M.Sc.
saptomo@gd.itb.ac.id
KK Inderaja & Sains Informasi Geografis

Fakultas Ilmu dan Teknologi Kebumian
Institut Teknologi Bandung
Contents (1)
Definitions
DEM/DTM and Topographic Mapping
DEM/DTM Formats
Grid DEM/DTM
TIN/CIP Technology
Interpolation Methods
DEM/DTM Points Density
12/4/2017 12:24 PM DEM & Indirect Contouring, SHM 2
Contents (2)
DEM/DTM in a Topographic Data System
DEM/DTM Compilation
Block Diagram of Photogrammetric
Digital Topographic Mapping
Problems / Exercises
References
Tugas

Definitions
DEM (Digital Elevation Models), which may provide a better
DTM (Digital Terrain Models), definition of the characteristics of
DSM (Digital Surface Models) the topographic surface, e.g., as
breaklines are used to define
DEM is an array of spot elevation abrupt changes in the surface.
which portrays a topographic sur- A breakline can represent an iden-
face. tifiable map feature such as a
If a DEM array is infinitely dense, street curb (essentially a micro
then the topographic surface will vertical cliff), or a small gully which
be exhaustively defined. might not usually be included in
the map feature list.
If not, important terrain character-
istics (or features) can be lost bet- DEM & DTM refer to ground
ween DEM points, just as between surface elevation, and
conventional contours.
DSM includes also elevation
A DTM includes not only DEM po- objects above ground surface,
ints, but also any terrain features such as buildings, trees, towers,
etc.

Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
PETA TOPOGRAFI
Informasi Tinggi (z)
Fitur/ obyek
planimetrik (x,y)
Grid DEM
DTM

Two Depictions of a DEM
(a) With elevation encoded by intensity (b) A shaded relief representation, showing
values, with brighter values being the DEM as if the surface were illuminated
higher. by a light source in the upper right corner.

DEM/DTM and Topographic Mapping
Topographic mapping techniques have evolved from pictorial re-
presentations, to hachuring, and now to contouring.
A contour is an isopleth which connects all points of equal eleva-
tions above a datum (be it sea level).
As long as the conceptual definition of a contour is fulfilled,
the method of compilation is unimportant.
An alternative to the direct tracing of contours is to create a DEM
/DTM and interpolate the contours from it.
Another application of DEM/DTM, both as raw data and as input
to orthoimage production.

DEM/DTM Formats (1)
Raster grid, regular rectang- Random Points DEM/DTM
ular grid, grid.
Triangulated Irregular Net-
work (TIN).
Irregular points, Random
points
Contours
Profiles
Voronoi Polygons
Etc.

DEM/DTM Formats (2)
Voronoi polygons
Here polygons are used

to represent a surface
defined by z-values lo-
cated at irregularly
spaced (x,y) points.
DEM/DTM Formats (3)
Triangular Irregular
Network (TIN)
Here triangles are

used to represent a
surface defined by z-
values located at irre-
gularly spaced (x,y)
points.
Voronoi polygons
Results of Interpolation
According to
DEM/DTM Formats
Teselasi menggunakan interpolasi

moving average dengan berat.
TIN

DEM/DTM Formats (4)

Grid DEM/DTM (1)
In a regular grid DEM/DTM, spot The Z-values are compatible for
elevations are determined for a computer processing using vari-
uniformly spaced array of ground ous algorithms.
cells or groundels, or posts. These algorithms include contour
The elevations (Z-values) are digit- generation, volume and slope cal-
ally stored in a computer array. culation, orthophoto generation,
The horizontal positions may be and depiction of 3-D views.
relative to any coordinate system; Computer algorithms applied to
e.g., map projection (X,Y), or geo- rectangular arrays of elevations
detic (,) coordinate systems. tend to be very straightforward in
Data structure : X0, Y0, X, Y, n, their implementation.
m, Z11, , Znm. (X- and Y-origin, X- They readily lend themselves to in-
and Y-spacing, number of rows vestigations such as frequency a-
and columns, Z-values) nalysis and finite element analysis.

3-D Representation of a Rectangular DEM
Lines are drawn to connect the center points of the groundel ar-
ray, which, by virtue of their varying Z-values, appear as undulat-
ing terrain.

Grid DEM/DTM (2)
A disadvantage is that for large a- The fidelity with which the
reas of level or uniformly sloping Earths surface can be repre-
terrain, a great deal of computer sented is determined by
memory is wasted storing highly
the horizontal spacing of the
redundant elevation information.
DEM,
(anticipated by progressive sam-
the vertical accuracy of the
pling)
elevation determination, and
A smaller horizontal spacing usu- the availability of spot heights
ally implies more accurate eleva- and breaklines.
tion values, but in practice eleva-
tion accuracy is determined by
the production method and the
product specifications.

Grid DEM/DTM, Breaklines & Spot Heights (1)
Sudden elevation changes, such as cliffs, cannot be represented
well by gridded DEMs.
Interpolation between DEM posts on either side of the cliff will be
misleading, since slopes on the Earths surface are not continuous.
DEM with breaklines at a cliff

Grid DEM/DTM, Breaklines & Spot Heights (2)
The same problem exist when streams, retaining walls, and
interpolating across drainage pavement edges.
features, since the surface is When interpolating elevations
not continuous between the from DEM in the vicinity of a
adjacent posts. breakline, only points on the
To alleviate these problems, same side of the breakline are
some gridded DEM formats in- used.
clude breaklines, which indi- Spot heights may also be in-
cate cliffs, drainage lines, an cluded with the breaklines; if
other significant discontinui- a peak lies between elevation
ties in the topographic surface. posts, interpolation between
Breaklines are lines which have the posts will not give the true
constant slope and are used height in that area.
where there are discontinuities
in the terrain surface, such as

(DTM : DEM + break-lines)
TIN/CIP Technology
State-of-the-art wire frame formation technology uses a
Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN), which optimally connects
DEM data points and the vertices in the breakline vectors to their
nearest neighbors, to comprise a wire-frame of near-equilateral
triangles which approximates the topographic surface.
Obviously, the denser the data points, the better the wire frame
conforms (or drapes) to the minutiae of the terrain surface. ()
A Contour Interpolation Program (CIP) is then applied to

interpolate values for the chosen contour intervals (isopleth
values) along the triangle sides, where applicable.
Contour are formed by graphically linking the interpolated contour
values, thereby fulfilling the definition of an isopleth.

Triangulated irregular networks (TINs) produced from a DEM using
approximately (a) 750 and (b) 7000 points.

Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) (1)
A TIN affords a more efficient re- The triangles can be assumed
presentation of terrain in term of to be planar facets which are
data storage. sloped in 3-D space.
Spot elevations can be acquired Each triangle side has a uni-
at critical points, which are high form slope, and the system of
points, low points, locations of
slope changes, ridges, valleys, an triangles is called a TIN model.
the like.
Once these spot elevations have
been collected, together with
their X,Y coordinates, lines are
constructed between the points
forming a system of triangles
covering the surface.

The method generally used to A further generalization of a
construct the TIN is known as a TIN allows the inclusion of
Delaunay triangulation. breaklines.
The lines are drawn between Within the TIN, a breakline will
points in closest proximity to form the sides of two adjacent
each other, without any lines triangles and will have no other
intersecting. lines crossing.
The resulting set of triangles By using breakline in a TIN, the
has the property that for each terrain surface can be more
triangle, the circle that passes faithfully represented, and con-
through the three vertices contours generated from the TIN
tains no vertices of any other will give a more accurate por-
triangles. trayal of the surface features.

(a) Contour map showing ac-
curate representation of
terrain in an area.
(b) Contours of the same area
based on a TIN created
from 20 data points, but
without a break-line along
stream AB. (Note the erro-
neous contour representa-
tions, especially in the area
of the stream.)
(c) Contours of the same area
based on a TIN with 20 da-
ta points, but identifying
stream line AB as a break-
line. (Note the improve-
ment in the contours in the
area of the stream.)
(d) Contours of the same area
based on a TIN created
from 72 data points, and
with stream line AB
identified as a break-line.

A disadvantage of TIN represen- With a TIN, the triangle con-
tations is that determining the e- taining the point of interest
levation at a point is more com- must be determined by
plicated. search, which requires more
With a gridded DEM, the row, computation, even though a
column coordinates of the point number of efficient search
within the DEM can be deter- methods exist.
mined by subtracting the corner
coordinates of the DEM and di-
viding by the grid spacing.
Points that lie between grid
nodes are then determined by
interpolation.

Interpolation Methods (1)
Because certain computational al-
gorithms require the use of regu-
lar grids, it is sometimes neces-
sary to convert a TIN to a regular
grid DEM.
This can be done by interpolat-
ing elevations between the TIN
vertices at the centers of each
grid cell.
Some interpolation methods, Elevation values in DEM are interpolated
i.e., nearest neighbor, inverse dis- from irregular arrays of elevations
tance weighting, moving least measured through photogrammetric
methods
squares, and Kriging.

Some mathematical models In the inverse distance weight-
used, i.e., linear i., bilinear i., bicu- ing approach, elevations at the
bic i., general polynomial i., least grid cell locations are comput-
squares i., finite-elements, etc. ed by a weighted average of
Area used for interpolation, i.e., spot elevations, where each
point-wise (moving averages), weight is inversely proportio-
piece/patch-wise, or domain- nal to the horizontal distance
wise. between the grid cell center
and the spot elevation point.
The nearest-neighbor method
simply assigns the elevation of a By this approach, spot elevati-
grid cell to that of the nearest ons that are nearer to the grid
spot elevation in the TIN. cell will contribute more hea-
vily to the weighted average.

In the moving least squares ap- Kriging is a statistical method
proach, a local polynomial surface which involves spatial correla-
z = f(x,y) is fitted to a small set of
points nearest of the grid cell tion of points.
being interpolated. The spatial correlation is speci-
Once the polynomial coeffici- fied a priori through the use of
ents have been computed by variogram which quantifies the
least squares, the z value (ele- influence a spot elevation will
vation) is computed at the have on points being interpo-
given x,y of the grid cell. lated.
The procedure is then repeated Proper definition of the vario-
for every additional grid cell,
gram is important for generat-
with different polynomial sur-
faces being computed for each. ing an accurate interpolation.

3-D View of a Regular Grid that has been Interpolated
from the Data Points of Figure-d by Kriging

DEM/DTM Point Density (1)
DEM/DTM point density should be based on the nature of the terrain
surface and the degree of topographic resolution required.
E.g., five discrete DEM points should be sufficient to represent the
shape of a pyramid (one point each at the four base corners, and one
point at the apex).
If the surface texture of the pyramid is not required, a dense array of
DEM points provides an unnecessary level of information.
In flat and featureless terrain (which does not exist in nature, but is
conceptually possible in very small scale mapping with large contour
intervals), the six model points (PUG points) from an AT are sufficient.
Indeed, this idea is the basis for simple rectification, where images
are projected (or enlarged) using a tilting projector and/or copy
board.
DEM/DTM Point Density (2)
DEM/DTM point density can also be based on a requirement for
realistic or pleasing contours at a certain hardcopy scale (current
practice is to compile a point every 34 mm at the intended
hardcopy scale).
Then, a graphic system may be use to smooth lines and perform
other techniques which render the CIP/TIN-generated contours
similar to manually compile contours (as long as the User only
uses the hardcopy and does not zoom in on the monitor vector
display).
E.g., if a hardcopy map scale of 1 : 2,500 is chosen, then the DEM
density should be every 7,5 m (3-4 mm x 1:2,500 map scale).

DEM/DTM in a Topographic Data System
One of the major function of a contour map is to support the
interpolation of vertical (Z) values wherever required.
If a topographic data system can provide these values in real-
time, and if those values are within required S-factor (Static)
specifications, then a contour map becomes a cartographic by-
product which provides an impression of the terrain, just like
relief-shading, hachuring or other pictorial terrain representa-
tion techniques.
Flying height above ground level

S - factor ; range 8000 - 15000 (softcopy systems)
Spot elevation accuracy
Flying height above ground level
C - factor ; range 2000 - 4000
Contour interval

DEM/DTM Compilation (1)
A DEM can be developed by com- the system drives along a pro-
piling a regular array of spot ele- file while the operator keeps
vations (e.g., in a rectangular grid the mark on the ground (dyna-
pattern). mic mode, scanning/profiling).
DEMs can be produced by both The DEM may also be interpo-

manual and automated methods. lated from manually generated
contours, although it is now more
In manual production, common for contours to be gene-
either the stereo-plotter sets rated from a DEM.
the floating mark at the hori-
Manual methods are typically re-
zontal position of each post and
liable, but are slow and expen-
the operator places it on the
sive for large areas.
ground (static mode), or

DEM/DTM Compilation (2)
Digital system like analytical plotters- can automatically drive
the measuring mark in a prescribed density and pattern.
The only task the Operator performs is to place the measuring mark
on the terrain surface (semi-automatic + static mode).
Automated systems use computer vision techniques to perform

the operators task of determining the ground surface elevation
by matching corresponding portions of two stereo images.

The Promise of Automated DEM Generation
The Reliability of Image Correlation
The Reliability of Automated DEM Generation
Stereo Imposing DTM in Real Time
PRODUKSI DEM SECARA

OTOMATIS
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The Promise of Automated DEM Generation (1)
Digital systems promise the possibility of automatically generated

DEM by Image Correlation (or auto-correlation) techniques.
If the technology becomes reliable and accurate, it could replace the
need for manual measurements by a photogrammetrist.
Automated systems use computer vision techniques to perform

the operators task of determining the ground surface elevation by
matching corresponding portions of two stereo images.

The Promise of Automated DEM Generation (2)
Using bundle parameters (from AT, for absolute orientation), an
Image Correlation algorithm
First resamples the image file into epipolar images.
A set of image points (e.g grid) is selected from the left image and
subsequently matched with corresponding points in the right image.
Then, correlation sub-routine(s) -mostly statistical prediction models-
are applied to the image data along the corresponding epipolar lines.
Few matches are perfect, but if the threshold of a match likelihood is
reached at a particular location, the calculated DEM point value is
accepted.
In general, the resulting DEM will differ somewhat from a perfectly

regular grid due to tilt and relief displacement which exist in the
images.

Positions of Automatically Matched
DEM Points in a Stereopair

Block Diagram of Automated DEM Generation
Digital photos Boundary of
of the left and DEM region in
right image. the left image.
Bundle parameters
of the left and right Epipolar resampling
image.
DEM posts dx
Digital image matching & dy in the
left image.
Calculation of DEM
points by space
intersection
DEM

The Reliability of Image Correlation (1)
The reliability of image correlation greatly depends on the following
factors :
that image data is available for both the left and right images to
provide the basis for the correlation sub-routines (i.e., there are no
stereo-dead areas caused by displaced objects such as buildings),
that image details (pixel patterns) are available to provide a degree of
image signature for the correlation sub-routines (i.e., there are no
dead shadows or burned-out bright spots which contain few
image patterns variations),
that image details are not drastically different so confusion is
minimized (e.g., details caused by light reflection pattern changes
which result from the unavoidable change in illumination angles
between exposures).

The Reliability of Image Correlation (2)
Automated methods can be fast and relatively inexpensive, but
fails on complicated scenes -such as urban areas or forests- and
in featureless areas (homogeneous areas) such as desert-.
All such problems can easily be solved by human interpreters,
but not necessarily by image correlation software, since a
computer program has no experience or imagination.
Often, an Operator must help the algorithms along by mapping out
difficult areas or areas of exclusion before image processing
In some systems, the operator can specify beforehand any areas in
which he believes the automated process will not work well.
The stereo-matcher then skip these areas, leaving them for the
operator to do.
Manual editing of automated results is nearly always required.

The Reliability of Automated DEM Generation (1)
Since image correlation can only be applied (matched) to the
model (visible) surface,
DEM points are produced for tree canopies, building tops and large
objects (such as parked cars), rather than for the actual terrain
surface data.
Furthermore, breaklines are not yet available, so they must be
manually compiled.
Automated systems match on the visible surfaces, such as the

tops of buildings or trees (), instead of the terrain surface that
we want to represent in the DEM.
While some progress has been made toward automatically
recognizing trees and buildings and dropping the elevations to the
ground, this process still requires extensive manual e-diting.

Automated stereo
elevation model results,
including elevations on
tops of trees and
buildings.
Courtesy of Dr. Steven Cochran,

Digital Mapping Laboratory,
Carnegie Mellon University.

A DEM/DTM produced in this manner is not adequate for contour
generation, and has not been proven to deliver acceptable results,
especially when examined under stereo superimposition.
Typically, the additional time required for editing far surpasses the
labor saved in compiling DEM.
Manual editing of automated results is nearly always required.
Some progress has been made toward automatically recognizing

trees and buildings and dropping the elevation to the ground, this
process still requires extensive manual editing.

(a) Contour map showing accurate representation of terrain in an area.
(b) Contours of the same area based on a TIN created from 20 data points,
but without a breakline along stream AB. (Note the erroneous contour
representations, especially in the area of the stream.)
Automated systems may produce spikes or holes due to noise in
the data or bad matches.
Large anomalies can usually be detected and corrected automatically;
the harder problem is errors close to the average terrain variation in
magnitude, which must be recognized and corrected manually.
Using this type of DEM and level of accuracy

may not cause large, apparent horizontal (X/Y) displacements in
small scale harcdcopy (fixed scale)
orthophoto generation, and some argue this technique is adequate
for such purposes.
However, if a softcopy orthophoto with first-order geocoded X/Y/Z
coordinate values is required (now possible in digital orthophoto
technology), then the current quality of auto-correlated DEM is simply
in adequate.

In summary, Image Correlation is one of many possibilities in
automation which requires significant development before results
are acceptable.
Until it can produced even second-order DEM for the macro relief,
Image Correlation clearly cannot support orthophoto generation
comparable even to conventional hardcopy orthophoto
A common problem for both manual and automated methods is

banding or corn rows, which give the DEM a ridged appearance.
This may be caused by systematic offsets between adjacent elevation
profiles, or it may be an artifact of interpolating the DEM from
contours.

DEM showing
a banding pattern,
probably due to contour
interpolation.

Operators often have a tendency to let the floating mark dig
into the ground when profiling down hill.

If adjacent profiles are done in opposite directions, to reduce
the amount of image movement required, the profile elevations
will differ by the amount of this systematic offset.
Automated system may also have systematic errors in their
correlation along profiles, leading to the same problems.
Even if the overall amplitude of the regular pattern is within

accuracy specifications, systematic errors have an effect on
relative accuracy and also detract from the appearance of
products generated from the DEM.

Stereo Superimposing DTM in Real-time
Digital system can provides real-time stereo superimposition of
the DTM data, as it is compiled.
The TIN wire-frame or CIP contours can also be generated in near
real-time and superimposed in stereo, so the Operator can view the
results.
If the contours do not adequately reflect the terrain surface, the
Operator can compile additional DEM points or break-lines and
regenerate the contours until they are correct.
The notion of a realistic contour is outdated.

If a contour conforms to the terrain surface, then it is correct and
realistic, whether the line work appears to be normal or not.

Block Diagram of Photogrammetric
Digital Topographic Mapping
Tugas 5
Start dari planning.
Produk akhir : Peta foto & Peta Garis Digital
Gambarkan diagram prosesnya (dgn berbagai kombinasi yg mungkin)
Dikumpulkan : sebelum atau saat UAS

Relative Accuracy
Relative accuracy describes the internal consistency of the data-
set.
For a DEM, the relative accuracy specifies the accuracy of the differ-
ences in elevation between posts.
A DEM might be affected by an overall vertical shift, making its absolute
accuracy poor, but still have good relative accuracy.
12/4/2017 Topo-Mapping & Spatial Data Collect, SHM 52

PROBLEMS / EXERCISES

References
McGlone, J.C., ed., 2004. Manual of Photogrammetry, 5th ed., Ameri-
can Society of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Maryland
20814, USA, 1151 p.
Mikhail, E.M., J.S. Bethel, and J.C. McGlone, 2001. Introduction to
Modern Photogrammetry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 479 p.
Wolf, P.R., and B.A. Dewitt, 2000. Elements of Photogrammetry : with
Application in GIS, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 608p.
Internet Browsing.
Aknowledgements
Some data, information, illustrations, and diagrams in this presentation are quoted
from .ppt files developed by Dr. Ir. Bobby S. Dipokusumo, M.Sc.

Tugas No.
Kerjakan soal-soal dari Problems (13-1 s/d 13-15).
Waktu : 2 minggu (__/__/09 s/d __/__/09)

Materi kuliah GD3203 Fotogrametri II, Semester I-2013/2014
Chapter 04
Topographic Mapping and Spatial Data Collection
End of Chapter 04B
Digital Elevation Models

and Indirect Contouring
Compiled & developed by
Saptomo H Mertotaroeno, Ir., M.Sc.
saptomo@gd.itb.ac.id
KK Inderaja & Sains Informasi Geografis

Fakultas Ilmu dan Teknologi Kebumian
Institut Teknologi Bandung

Chap04b Dem

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Materi kuliah Fotogrametri II,

Digital Elevation Models

KK Inderaja & Sains Informasi Geografis

12/4/2017 12:24 PM DEM & Indirect Contouring, SHM 3

12/4/2017 12:24 PM DEM & Indirect Contouring, SHM 4

Informasi Tinggi (z)

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Here polygons are used

Here triangles are

Teselasi menggunakan interpolasi

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DEM with breaklines at a cliff

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A Contour Interpolation Program (CIP) is then applied to

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Flying height above ground level

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DEMs can be produced by both The DEM may also be interpo-

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Automated systems use computer vision techniques to perform

12/4/2017 12:24 PM DEM & Indirect Contouring, SHM 33

PRODUKSI DEM SECARA

12/4/2017 12:24 PM Digital Photogrammetry Principles, SHM 34

Digital systems promise the possibility of automatically generated

Automated systems use computer vision techniques to perform

12/4/2017 12:24 PM Digital Photogrammetry Principles, SHM 35

In general, the resulting DEM will differ somewhat from a perfectly

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Automated systems match on the visible surfaces, such as the

12/4/2017 12:24 PM Digital Photogrammetry Principles, SHM 41

Courtesy of Dr. Steven Cochran,

12/4/2017 12:24 PM DEM & Indirect Contouring, SHM 42

Some progress has been made toward automatically recognizing

12/4/2017 12:24 PM Digital Photogrammetry Principles, SHM 43

Using this type of DEM and level of accuracy

12/4/2017 12:24 PM Digital Photogrammetry Principles, SHM 45

A common problem for both manual and automated methods is

12/4/2017 12:24 PM Digital Photogrammetry Principles, SHM 46

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Even if the overall amplitude of the regular pattern is within

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