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CHAPTER 49

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Gas Exchange
One of the major physiological challenges facing
all multicellular animals is obtaining sufficient
oxygen and disposing of excess carbon dioxide
In vertebrates, the gases diffuse into the
aqueous layer covering the epithelial cells that
line the respiratory organs
Diffusion is passive, driven only by the difference
in O2 and CO2 concentrations on the two sides
of the membranes and their relative solubilities
in the plasma membrane
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Gas Exchange
Gases diffuse directly into unicellular organisms
However, most multicellular animals require
system adaptations to enhance gas exchange
Amphibians respire across their skin
Insects have an extensive tracheal system
Fish use gills
Mammals have a large network of alveoli

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Gills
Specialized extensions of tissue that
project into water
Increase surface area for diffusion
External gills are not enclosed within body
structures
Found in fish and amphibians
Two main disadvantages
Must be constantly moved to ensure contact with
oxygen-rich fresh water
Are easily damaged 7
Gills
Gills of bony fishes are located between
the oral (buccal or mouth) cavity and the
opercular cavities
These two sets of cavities function as
pumps that alternately expand
Move water into the mouth, through the
gills, and out of the fish through the open
operculum or gill cover

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Gills

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Gills
Some bony fish have immobile opercula
Swim constantly to force water over gills
Ram ventilation
Most bony fish have flexible gill covers
Remora switch between ram ventilation
and pumping action

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Gills
37 gill arches on each side of a fishs
head
Each is composed of two rows of gill
filaments
Each gill filament consist of lamellae
Thin membranous plates that project into
water flow
Water flows past lamellae in 1 direction only

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Gills
Within each lamella, blood flows opposite
to direction of water movement
Countercurrent flow
Maximizes oxygenation of blood
Increases Dp
Fish gills are the most efficient of all
respiratory organs

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Gills
Many amphibians use cutaneous
respiration for gas exchange
In terrestrial arthropods, the respiratory
system consists of air ducts called
trachea, which branch into very small
tracheoles
Tracheoles are in direct contact with individual
cells
Spiracles (openings in the exoskeleton) can
be opened or closed by valves 15
Lungs
Gills were replaced in terrestrial animals
because
Air is less supportive than water
Water evaporates
The lung minimizes evaporation by moving
air through a branched tubular passage
A two-way flow system
Except birds

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Lungs
Air exerts a pressure downward, due to
gravity
A pressure of 760 mm Hg is defined as
one atmosphere (1.0 atm) of pressure
Partial pressure is the pressure
contributed by a gas to the total
atmospheric pressure

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Lungs
Lungs of amphibians are formed as
saclike outpouchings of the gut
Frogs have positive pressure breathing
Force air into their lungs by creating a positive
pressure in the buccal cavity
Reptiles have negative pressure breathing
Expand rib cages by muscular contractions,
creating lower pressure inside the lungs

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Lungs
Lungs of mammals are packed with
millions of alveoli (sites of gas exchange)
Inhaled air passes through the larynx,
glottis, and trachea
Bifurcates into the right and left bronchi,
which enter each lung and further
subdivide into bronchioles
Alveoli are surrounded by an extensive
capillary network
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Lungs

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Lungs
Respiration in birds occurs in two cycles
Cycle 1 = Inhaled air is drawn from the
trachea into posterior air sacs, and exhaled
into the lungs
Cycle 2 = Air is drawn from the lungs into
anterior air sacs, and exhaled through the
trachea
Blood flow runs 90o to the air flow
Crosscurrent flow
Not as efficient as countercurrent flow 22
Lungs

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Gas Exchange
Gas exchange is driven by differences in partial
pressures
Blood returning from the systemic circulation,
depleted in oxygen, has a partial oxygen
pressure (PO2) of about 40 mm Hg
By contrast, the PO2 in the alveoli is about 105
mm Hg
The blood leaving the lungs, as a result of this
gas exchange, normally contains a PO2 of about
100 mm
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Lung Structure and Function
Outside of each lung is covered by the
visceral pleural membrane
Inner wall of the thoracic cavity is lined by
the parietal pleural membrane
Space between the two membranes is
called the pleural cavity
Normally very small and filled with fluid
Causes 2 membranes to adhere
Lungs move with thoracic cavity
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Lung Structure and Function
During inhalation, thoracic volume
increases through contraction of two
muscle sets
Contraction of the external intercostal
muscles expands the rib cage
Contraction of the diaphragm expands the
volume of thorax and lungs
Produces negative pressure which draws
air into the lungs
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Lung Structure and Function
Tidal volume
Volume of air moving in and out of lungs in a person
at rest
Vital capacity
Maximum amount of air that can be expired after a
forceful inspiration
Hypoventilation
Insufficient breathing
Blood has abnormally high PCO2
Hyperventilation
Excessive breathing
Blood has abnormally low PCO2
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Lung Structure and Function
Each breath is initiated by neurons in a
respiratory control center in the medulla
oblongata
Stimulate external intercostal muscles and
diaphragm to contract, causing inhalation
When neurons stop producing impulses,
respiratory muscles relax, and exhalation occurs
Muscles of breathing usually controlled
automatically
Can be voluntarily overridden hold your breath
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Lung Structure and Function
Neurons are sensitive to blood PCO2 changes
A rise in PCO2 causes increased production of
carbonic acid (H2CO3), lowering the blood pH
Stimulates chemosensitive neurons in the aortic
and carotid bodies
Send impulses to respiratory control center to
increase rate of breathing
Brain also contains central chemoreceptors that
are sensitive to changes in the pH of
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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Respiratory Diseases
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD)
Refers to any disorder that obstructs airflow
on a long-term basis
Asthma
Allergen triggers the release of histamine, causing
intense constriction of the bronchi and sometimes
suffocation

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Respiratory Diseases
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD) (cont.)
Emphysema
Alveolar walls break down and the lung exhibits
larger but fewer alveoli
Lungs become less elastic
People with emphysema become exhausted
because they expend three to four times the
normal amount of energy just to breathe
Eighty to 90% of emphysema deaths are caused
by cigarette smoking
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Respiratory Diseases
Lung cancer accounts for more deaths than any
other form of cancer
Caused mainly by cigarette smoking
Follows or accompanies COPD
Lung cancer metastasizes (spreads) so rapidly
that it has usually invaded other organs by the
time it is diagnosed
Chance of recovery from metastasized lung
cancer is poor, with only 3% of patients surviving
for 5 years after diagnosis
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Hemoglobin
Consists of four polypeptide chains: two a and
two b
Each chain is associated with a heme group
Each heme group has a central iron atom that
can bind a molecule of O2
Hemoglobin loads up with oxygen in the lungs,
forming oxyhemoglobin
Some molecules lose O2 as blood passes
through capillaries, forming deoxyhemoglobin

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Hemoglobin
Hemoglobins affinity for O2 is affected by
pH and temperature
The pH effect is known as the Bohr shift
Increased CO2 in blood increases H+
Lower pH reduces hemoglobins affinity for
O2
Results in a shift of oxyhemoglobin
dissociation curve to the right
Facilitates oxygen unloading
Increasing temperature has a similar effect38
Hemoglobin

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Transportation of Carbon Dioxide
About 8% of the CO2 in blood is dissolved in
plasma
20% of the CO2 in blood is bound to hemoglobin
Remaining 72% diffuses into red blood cells
Enzyme carbonic anhydrase combines CO2 with H2O
to form H2CO3
H2CO3 dissociates into H+ and HCO3
H+ binds to deoxyhemoglobin
HCO3 moves out of the blood and into plasma
One Cl exchanged for one HCO3 chloride shift
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Transportation of Carbon Dioxide
When the blood passes through
pulmonary capillaries, these reactions are
reversed
The result is the production of CO2 gas,
which is exhaled
Other dissolved gases are also
transported by hemoglobin
Nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO)

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