Introduction to Fatigue Failure

6ME1N Design of Machine Element

Unit-1
Lecture-2
 Lecture Overview
Introduction to fatigue Failure
Approaches to fatigue failure analysis
Factors affecting fatigue strength
Fatigue failure theories
Physical Properties
Density
Nature of fatigue failure
Starts with a crack
Usually at a stress concentration
Crack propagates until the material
fractures suddenly
Fatigue failure is typically sudden and
complete, and doesnt give warning
 Nature of fatigue failure
Crack Initiation
Fatigue always begins at a crack
Crack may start at a microscopic
inclusion (<.010 in.)
Crack may start at a "notch", or other
stress concentration
Crack Propagation
Sharp crack creates a stress
concentration
Each tensile stress cycle causes the
crack to grow
(~10-8 to 10-4 in/cycle)
Fracture
Sudden, catastrophic failure with no
warning.
 The major class of component failure is due to DYNAMIC LOADING
Repeated stresses
Alternating stresses
Fluctuating stresses
The ultimate strength of a material (Su) is the maximum stress a
material can sustain before failure assuming the load is applied only
once and held.
Fatigue strength Resistance of a material to failure under cyclic
loading.
A material can also FAIL by being loaded repeatedly to a stress level
that is LESS than (Su)
Fatigue failure
 Three major fatigue life methods used in design and analysis for
safe life estimation:
1. Stress life method (S-N Curves)

2. Strain life method (-N Curve)

3. Linear elastic fracture mechanics method

The above methods predict the life in number of cycles to failure, N, for
a specific level of loading. :

1. Low cycle Fatigue: 1 N 103 cycles

2. High cycle fatigue: N 103 cycles
 Stress-Life Method
based on stress levels only

It is the least accurate approach, especially for low-cycle

applications.

Most traditional method:

easiest to implement for a wide range of design applications

ample supporting data

represents high-cycle applications adequately

2. Strain-Life Method
Involves more detailed analysis of the plastic deformation at
localized regions where the stresses and strains are considered
for life estimates.

Good for low-cycle fatigue applications.

Some uncertainties exist in the results.

3.Fracture Mechanics Method
Assumes a crack is already present and detected.

Predicts crack growth with respect to stress intensity.

Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction

with computer codes and a periodic inspection program.
 Comparison of:

Density Classic Diet

Coke Coke

In the example to the 355 mL 355 mL

right, both cans have
Water Water
the same volume, but = 355 g = 355 g

the classic coke is

Sugar = Sugar =
more dense because the 39 g 0g
Nutra Nutra
sugar weighs more than nutrasweet. Sweet = Sweet =
0g 0.1g
The density of classic coke is 1.11 g/ml,
Tot. Tot.
and the density of diet coke is 1.00 g/ml Wgt.
394 g
= Wgt. =
355.1 g

http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/121Adensitycoke.ht
ml
Properties of Materials
Physical Properties
Based on laws of physics
Mechanical Properties
Materials ability to resist forces
Chemical Properties
Setting reactions, setting & degradation
Biologic Properties
Effects on living tissues
 Thermal & Electrical Properties
Materials that conduct electricity need to
have insulation from the pulp
Electrical current generation
Usually by means of different metals in contact
with each other (Galvanism)
Saliva facilitates flow of electrons between
metals, producing an electrical current like a
battery
Pain reaction to electrical current in tooth with
deep filling (little insulating dentin)
Pulp Insulation
Normally, remaining dentin in a cavity
preparation insulates the pulp.
When little dentin remains (within 1 mm of
pulp), cement bases can be used to insulate
pulp.

Composite and ceramic restorations are

nonconductive and do not need insulators.
 Boiling and Melting Points

Help identify chemicals

Mixtures have boiling range rather than a specific
boiling point
Atomic bonds broken by thermal energy
Some materials dont melt or boil
Decompose (burn) wood, cookie dough
Vapor Pressure
Measure of tendency to evaporate
Higher temperature increases vapor
pressure
Molecules escape from liquid to form
gas
Useful as solvents
Solvent evaporates, leaving a film of
desired material (Copal varnish, etc.)
 Thermal Conductivity
The rate that heat flows through a material
Metals have low heat capacity
Readily warms up and transmits heat
Example: Temperature change of hot food
(55C) and pulp (37C) provides strong
stimulus
Insulating base of .75 1mm minimize effects
of rapid temperature change
Thermal Conductivity
Measurement depends on:
Distance the heat travels
Difference in temperature between source
and destination (water pipe)
Measured in heat flow over time
Calories/secondmeterdegree
Insulating material needed to protect pulp with
deep metal restoration
 Thermal Conductivity
Measure of heat transfer
Rate of heat flow

Thermal Conductivity of Dental Materials

Material Thermal Conductivity
(cal/sec/cm2 [C/cm])
Human enamel 0.0022
Amalgam 0.055
Gold alloy 0.710
Heat Capacity
Amount of energy it takes to raise the
temperature of that object 1

Specific heat capacity is the amount of

energy it takes to raise the temperature
of 1 unit of mass of that material 1
 Heat of Fusion & Vaporization
Amount of energy needed to melt a material
= heat of fusion
Need 80 times more energy to melt ice than to
raise the temperature of water 1

Amount of energy needed to boil a material

= heat of vaporization
Need 540 times the energy to boil the same
quantity of water
 Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion
Measurement of change in volume in relation to a
change in temperature
Cooling results in shrinkage/contraction
Compare dental material to tooth
Restoration will shrink with cold and expand with

heat
Opens gaps between restoration and tooth =

microleakage (may cause recurrent decay)

Opening and closing gap = percolation

Dental amalgam percolation decreases over

time due to corrosion products from the
amalgam filling the space
Thermal Properties

Material Thermal Expansion Thermal Conductivity

(x10-6/C)
K ([mcal cm]/[cm2 sec C])
Tooth 8-11 1-2
Porcelain 6-15 2-3
Dental 10-12 1-3
Cement
Gold 14-16 710
Amalgam 22-28 55
Composite 20-50 1-3
Wax 250-400 1
 Electrical Conductivity

Metals are good conductors

Polymers and ceramics are poor
conductors insulators
Affects corrosion of metals

Electric pulp testing need to know what

material is in or on the tooth
 Viscosity

Ability to flow
Measured in grams/metersecond, or poise (P)
Temperature-dependent property
Thick = flow poorly (cold syrup)
Thin = flow easily (warm syrup)
Water at 20C = 0.01 P (1 cP)
Impression materials between 100,000 and
1,000,000 cP
 Wetting

Low viscosity and ability to wet a surface are

important in dental materials
Measured by determining the contact angle of
a liquid or solid
Low contact angle = good wetting
Example: drop of water on ice cube

High contact angle = poor wetting

Example: drop of water on plastic
Wetting
Partial wetting-contact angle around 90
degrees

Non wetting-close to 180 degree

contact angle http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_angle
 Hardness

Measured by pressing a hard shaped tip into

the surface of a material
Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, Knoop
Calculated based on:
Size of indentation

Load on the tip

Shape of the tip

Knoop (KHN): enamel = 350, dentin = 70,

porcelain = 400-500, acrylic denture

teeth = 20
Abrasion Resistance
Goldilocks Principle
(Just Right!)
Wear resistance of
dental materials to
food and opposing
teeth
Hard enough to
wear well, but not
wear away opposing
teeth
 Solubility

Calculated by amount of material that

dissolves in a given amount of liquid in
a given time
Test by immersing in water
Sample weighed before and after
Weight difference is solubility
Dental material should be nearly zero
 Water Sorption

Ability to absorb
water
Measured much
like solubility

Weight gained is
the water sorption
 Color
Complex phenomenon
Psychologic response to a physical stimulus
Perception of color may differ between people
Color depends on light (hard to match
restorative material to adjacent teeth)
Measured by matching against color tabs
Spectrophotometer (not useful in clinical dentistry)
Fluorescence is important
Color of teeth is in the yellow range
 Interaction with X-Rays

Some materials are radiolucent

Not seen in XR

Radiopaque metals

Some materials match radiopacity of enamel

to allow diagnosis of recurrent caries
makes them hard to detect on XR, though!
 Mechanical Properties

Subgroup of physical properties

Describe a materials ability to resist forces

Elasticity, stress, strain
 Biting Forces
Force: Any push or pull upon matter

Stress: The reaction within the material to an

externally applied force

Strain: The change produced within the material

as the result of stress
 Types of Forces

Compression pushing or crushing stress

Average biting force in posterior is
~170 lbs. or about 28,000 psi on a
single cusp of a molar
 Forces
Tension pulling stress (tug of war)

Shear parts of an object slide by each other
Torsion twisting force
Bending combination of several types of
stresses
One side stretched, other side compressed
Forces in single dimensions
Compression
Tension
Shear
Torsion
Flexure
Diametrical
tension/compression
This video also available separately on
ANGEL
Stress and strain
When force is applied to an object, it deforms
Stress-load per unit of cross-sectional area (eg.
pounds per square inch); the resistance a material
makes to an applied load
Strain-deformation per
unit length; the change in
shape (deformation) a
material makes in
response to stress
Stress and strain
If a pile of books is placed
on a shelf, the weight of
the books exerts a
downward force on the
shelf. The shelf does not
fall down, the shelf resists
the weight of the books.
This resisting force is
stress. If the shelf were
to change shape (eg. sag
in the middle) as a result
of the weight of the
books, the amount of
change would be the
strain. http://www.shelvingcompany.co.uk/media/heavy-duty%20floating_shelf.jpg
 Strain & Stress

Strain : Change in length divided by the

original length
Fractions (0.02) or percent (2%)

Stress : Force that develops in loaded

object (load)
Stress = load/area
Pounds/square inch (psi)

Stress and strain are proportional

 Elasticity

When force is removed, the object

returns to its original shape
Atomic bonds = microscopic springs
Bending = stretching + compression of
atomic bonds
Compression or elongation of a loaded
object measured in terms of change
in length
 Youngs modulus

Modulus of elasticity
Measure of the materials rigidity or stiffness
Resistance of the material to strain or
deformation
High modulus = stiff material (enamel)
Low modulus = more flexible (rubber band)

Units are psi, but larger (psi x 106 or gigapascals)

Strain
Elastic strain: deformation/strain that is
reversible (eg. stretching an elastic band a
little and it bounces back to its original shape
and size)
Plastic strain: some permanent deformation
caused (eg. stretching an elastic band really
wide to the point that when it relaxes, it
remains a little stretched out)
The tipping point between elastic and plastic
strain is the elastic limit
 Plastic Deformation
Stress no longer proportional to strain
Spring doesnt return to original length
Elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point

Ultimate tensile strength point where material

breaks (failure occurs)
Highest stress on the graph

Bad for bridges road or dental ones

Ultimate strength = highest stress measured

Compressive test shows compressive

(tensile) strength
 Mechanical Properties of
Dental Materials
Resilience ability to absorb energy and
not be deformed (mouthguard)

Toughness energy absorbed up to the

failure point on stress/strain diagram (helmet)

Fracture toughness energy it takes to

fracture a material when a crack is present
Glass = low Metals = high
Fatigue
Fatigue testing
replicates real world
applications
Materials used
multiple times
things fail eventually
Testing predicts
amount of stress the
material can endure
without breaking
 Time-dependent Properties
Creep very slow flow
Small change in shape when an object is
under continuous compression (amalgam)
Takes place over a long period of time
Temperature dependent

Stress relaxation similar to creep

Slow decrease in force over time (ortho
elastics)
Temperature dependent
 Stress Concentration

Stress focuses around defect

Glass cutter scratches surface (defect)
Bending stress applied; fracture occurs
Control the defects its important in
dentistry to handle materials properly
Remove surface defects that concentrate
stress
Polish restorations, proper design, glaze
porcelain
Chemical Properties
Decay or degradation

Setting Reactions
Gypsum products set by precipitation

Composites polymerize
Biologic Properties
Effects of a material on living tissue