Unit - 1

INTRODUCTION
Major considerations in Electrical Machine
Design - Electrical Engineering Materials-
Space factor - Choice of Specific Electrical
and Magnetic loadings -Thermal
considerations - Heat flow -Temperature rise
- Rating of machines -Standard
specifications.
Major considerations in Electrical Machine Design

• DESIGN may be defined as a creative physical realization of

theoretical concepts.
• ENGINEERING DESIGN is the application of Science, technology and
inventions to produce various machines to solve specified tasks with
optimum economy and efficiency.
• Problem of design and manufacture of electric machinery is to build,
as economically as possible, a machine which fulfills a certain set of
specifications and guarantees.
• The major considerations to evolve a good design are:
• (i) Cost .
• (ii) Durability.
• (iii) Compliance with performance criteria as laid down in
specifications
Design Factors

• Mechanical force required for movement in rotating electrical machines

can be produced both by electrostatic and electromagnetic fields since
both the fields store energy.
• In electrostatic machines, the energy density is limited by the dielectric
strength of the medium used.
• In electromagnetic machines, magnetic effect is used for production of
force and there is no comparable restriction in magnetic fields.
• Voltages that can be developed and used by normal means, the forces
produced by electrostatic effects are very weak.
• A small current can produce large mechanical forces by electromagnetic
means and therefore all the modern electrical machines are
electromagnetic type.
BASIC STRUCTURAL PARTS OF AN
ELECTROMAGNETIC ROTATING MACHINE
• MAGNETIC CIRCUIT:
• Provides the path for magnetic flux. Consists of air gap, stator& rotor
teeth, stator &rotor, cores(yokes) .
• ELECTRIC CIRCUIT: Consists of stator &rotor windings.
• DIELECTRIC CIRCUIT : Consists of insulation
• THERMAL CIRCUIT: Considered with mode& media for dissipation of
heat.
• MECHANICAL PARTS: Frame, bearing and shaft.
Limitations in design

• (i) Saturation.
• (ii) Temperature rise.
• (iii) Insulation.
• (iv) Efficiency.
• (v) Mechanical parts.
• (vi) Commutation.
• (vii) Power factor.
• (viii) Consumer specifications (ix) Standard specifications.
• SATURATION:
• The maximum allowable flux density is to be determined by the
Saturation level of the ferromagnetic material.
• TEMPERATURE RISE:
• Life of the machine depends on the type of insulating material used.
• Life of the insulating material in turn depends upon the temperature
rise of the machine .
• Proper cooling and ventilation techniques are required to keep the
temperature rise within safe limits.
• INSULATION:
• The insulating material should withstand electrical, mechanical and
thermal stresses produced in the machine.
• The size of the insulation is not only decided by the maximum
voltage stress but also by the mechanical stresses produced.
• Eg. For the same operating voltage thicker insulation has to be used
for large sized conductors than for smaller sized ones.
• EFFICIENCY:
• Should be as high as possible to reduce the operating cost.
• Magnetic and electric loadings used should be small and this
requires large amount of material.
• So the capital cost of a machine designed for high efficiency is high
while its running cost is low.
• MECHANICAL PARTS: Construction of a machine should satisfy
numerous technological requirements.
• In I.M – length of air gap is small in order to have high p.f.
• In large machines, size of the shaft is decided by considering the
critical speed, which depends upon the deflection of the shaft.
• Type of bearings to be used depends on the inertia forces due to
unbalanced rotors and unbalanced magnetic pull, and the type of
construction whether the machine is mounted vertically or
horizontally.
• COMMUTATION: Commutation conditions limits the maximum
output of the machine.
• POWER FACTOR: Poor P.F results in larger values of current for the
same power, therefore larger conductor sizes have to be used.
• Problem of P.F is particularly important in case if I.M.
• Length of air gap is determined by P.F considerations.
• Value of flux density depends on the power factor, hence P.F
becomes a limiting factor.
• CONSUMER’S SPECIFICATIONS:
• Specifications laid down in the consumer’s order has to be met.
Design evolved should also satisfy the economical constraints
imposed on the manufacturer.
• STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS:
• Specifications are the biggest strain on the design, since both the
consumer as well as the manufacturer cannot get away from them
without satisfying them.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

• It consists of 1. Conducting materials 2. Magnetic materials 3.

Insulating materials
• Electrical Conducting materials consists of
• 1. High conductivity materials
• used for making all types of windings required in electrical
machines, apparatus, devices .
• in transmission and distribution.
• 2. High resistivity materials (alloys).
• Used for making resistances and heating devices.
• ELECTRICAL CONDUCTING MATERIALS:
• High conductivity materials.
• Copper, Aluminium, Iron & Steel, Alloys of copper

• High resistivity materials (Alloys).

• Nickel, Silver & Iron
• FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF HIGH CONDUCTING MATERIALS:
• 1. Highest possible conductivity. 2. Least possible temperature
coefficient of resistance.
• 3. Adequate mechanical strength i.e., absence of brittleness.
• 4. Rollability and Drawability.
• 5. Good weldability and Solderability which ensures high reliability
and low electrical resistance of the joints.
• 6. Adequate resistance to corrosion.
• ALLOYS OF COPPER:
• 1. Bronze- copper based alloys containing tin, cadmium, beryllium
and certain other metals are generally called Bronzes.
• Beryllium copper
• Cadmium copper
• 2. Brass- contains 66% Cu, 34%Zn.
• 3. Copper silver alloy- contains 99.1% Cu, 0.06 to 0.1% silver.
MATERIALS OF HIGH RESISTIVITY: They can be
classified into 3 categories:
• I- GROUP: (MATERIALS USED FOR PRECISION WORKS)
• Consists of materials used in precision measuring instruments & in making
standard resistances and resistance boxes.
• Important material used is Manganin (composition of Cu86%, Mn 12%, Ni 2%)
• II- GROUP: (MATERIALS USED FOR RHEOSTATS)
• Consists of materials from which resistance elements are made for all kinds of
rheostats and similar control devices.
• Principal alloy is constantan consisting of 60 to 65 % Cu and 40 to 35% Ni).
• III- GROUP: (MATERIALS USED FOR HEATING DEVICES )
• Consists of materials suitable for making high temperature elements for
electric furnaces, heating devices and loading rheostats.
Alloys of Nickel, Chromium and Iron called as Nichrome.
• ELECTRICAL CARBON MATERIALS:
• manufactured from graphite and other forms of carbon coal, etc.
• Carbon brushes are often graphited i.e., heat treated to increase
the size of crystals.
• This raises the conductivity of the brushes and reduces their
hardness.
• Carbon brushes should acquire a mirror smooth surface in order
that they does not cause wear of commutator when mounted on
them.
• CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
• Based on the relative permeability, materials may classified as,
• 1. Ferromagnetic materials. (µr much>1)
• 2. Paramagnetic materials. (µr slightly>1)
• 3. Diamagnetic materials. (µr slightly<1)
• Based on the width of hysteresis loop,
• 1. Soft magnetic materials. 2. Hard magnetic materials.
• SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS:
• i) Solid core materials ii) Electrical sheet & strip iii) Special purpose
alloys.
• i) SOLID CORE MATERIALS: Iron, low carbon silicon steel, cast iron,
gray cast iron, cast steel, soft steel, ferro-cobalt.
• ii) SHEET METALS: Electrical steel sheets (Non-oriented steel), and
Cold Rolled Grain Oriented steel (CRGO).
• iii) SPECIAL PURPOSE ALLOYS: Mumetal, Permalloys, Super permalloy,
Perminvar, Permendur.
• INSULATING MATERIALS (or) INSULANTS
• ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES: An ideal insulating material should have;
• i) high dielectric strength, sustained at elevated temperatures,
• ii) high resistivity or specific resistance,
• iii) low dielectric losses,
• iv) good thermal conductivity,
• v) high degree of thermal stabilty i.e. it should not deteriorate at high
temperatures.
• CLASSIFICATION:
• i. Class Y - cotton, silk, paper, cellulose, wood, etc neither impregnated nor
immersed in oil.
• ii. Class A – materials of class Y suitably impregnated.
• iii. Class E- Synthetic resin enamels, cotton, paper laminated with
formaldehyde bonding, etc.
• iv. Class B- mica, glass fibre, asbestos, etc, with suitable bonding materials.
v. Class F-materials of class B with suitable bonding materials of higher
thermal stability(25°C higher than class B).
• vi. Class H- glass fibre, asbestos & built up mica, with suitable bonding
materials like silicon resins.
• vii. Class C- Mica, ceramics, glass, quartz without binders or with
silicon resins of higher thermal stability.
• INSULATING MATERIALS USED IN MODERN ELECTRIC MACHINES:
• Mica, Micafolium, Fibrous glass, Asbestos, Cotton fibre, Polyamides,
Synthetic-resin enamels, Slot-lining materials, Wood, Silicones,
Epoxide thermosetting resins, Synthetic resin, Petroleum based
mineral oils, Askarels.
• APPLICATIONS: a. Wires for magnetic coils and windings of machines.
b. Laminations c. Machines& Transformers.
• CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF ROTATING MACHINES
• Every rotating machine has the following three quantities.
• The presence of any two quantities, will produce the third quantity.
Magnetic field-I (field)
Magnetic field-II (armature)
Mechanical force.
• CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF A D.C MACHINE:
• STATOR - yoke or frame - field pole - pole shoe - field winding -
Interpole
• ROTOR - armature core - armature winding - commutator
• OTHERS - brush -brush holder
• CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE
• STATOR - yoke or frame - armature core - armature winding
• ROTOR - field pole - pole shoe - field winding -damper winding
• CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF CYLINDRICAL ROTOR
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
• STATOR - yoke or frame - armature core - armature winding
• ROTOR - solid rotor -field conductors or bars
• CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF CYLINDRICAL ROTOR
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
• STATOR - yoke or frame - stator core - stator winding
• ROTOR - rotor core -rotor bars -end rings
• CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SLIP RING INDUCTION MACHINE
• STATOR - yoke or frame - stator core - stator winding
• ROTOR - rotor core -rotor winding -slip rings
• Space factor (SF)
• It is defined as the ratio of copper or conductor area to the total
winding area
• SF = copper or conductor area/total winding area
• SF = ks (space factor for slots)
• Space factor are used to select the size of conductors , air gap and
insulation thickness
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC LOADINGS
• The armature diameter ( or
stator bore)D and core length L
are known as dimensions of
rotating machines. Based on the
choice of specific magnetic and
specific electric loadings are
decides the size , speed and
shape of the machines which in
turn depends on main
dimensions D and L
• TOTAL MAGETIC LOADING
• Total magnetic loading is defined
as the total flux around the
armature (or stator) periphery at
the air gap
• Total magnetic loading =p∅
• P= number of poles
• ∅ =flux per pole in wb
• Total electric loading
• Total electric loading is defined
as the total number of ampere
conductors around the armature
(or ) stator periphery
• Totalelectric loading=IZ Z
• IZ = current per conductor in
amperes
• Z = number per conductor in
amperes
CHOICE OF SPECIFIC MAGNETIC LOADING

• The average flux density over the airgap of a machine is known as

specific magnetic loading.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝
• specific magneticzloading Bav =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝
𝑝∅
• Bav= Wb/ m2 or tesla
𝜋𝐷𝐿
• Wkt
𝜋𝐷
• Pole pitch 𝜏 =
𝑝
∅
• Bav= Wb/ m2 or tesla
𝜏𝐿
• The choice of specific magnetic loading depends on following factors
• 1maximum flux density in iron parts
• 2.magnetizing current
• 3.core losses or iron losses
Magnetizing current
• The magnetizing current of a
machine is directly proportional
to the mmf required to force the
flux in the airgap which is
directly proportional to the
specific loading
• For small value of specific
magnetic loading –the flux
density in the iron parts is low
and worked on linear or knee
portion of B-H CURVE
• For large value value of specific
magnetic loading - results more
magnetizing current.so the iron
parts working in saturation
region of B-H CURVE
• So choice of specific magnetic
loading
• Induction motor is low
• Synchronous machine is high
Core loss or iron loss
• In a machine , the loss per unit volume is directly proportional to the
square of the flux density.
• The coreloss of any machine which depends on direct relation to the
flux density of the machine to be designed
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
• Flux density =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
1
• Area ∝
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
1
• Area ∝
𝐵
• Iron loss = loss per unit volume x volume
• = loss per unit volume x area x length
1
• Iron loss ∝ B2 X
𝐵
• Iron loss ∝ B
• The specific magnetic loading is directly proportional to fluxdensity
• If chosen large value of specific magnetic loading results increasing
core losses and corresponding efficiency decreases
• For high high speed machines choose low value of Bav
Choice of specific electric loading
• The number of armature ampere conductors per metre of armature
periphery at the airgap is known as specific electric loading
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
• specific electric loading =
𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝
IZ 𝑍
• ac =
𝜋𝐷
• The choice of specific electric loading depends upon following factors
1.Permissible rise of temperature a.temperature rise b.cooling co-efficient
2.Voltage
3.Size of machine
3.Current density
Permissible rise of temperature
• In a machine dc or ac the the
diagrammatic representation of
armature slots and teeth are
shown in figure
• Consider the length of the armature L and area of the each conductor az
The copper loss in each slot is given by
Copper loss per slot,Q = (current in each conductor)2 x resistance of
each conductor x conductors per slot
𝜌𝑙
Q= I2z x x Zs 𝜌- resistivity of conductor
az

𝑍
Zs = Z – Total number of conductor
𝑆
s- total no slots
If slot pitch is Ys , then area of cooling surface = Ys L
• Loss dissipated per unit area of armature surface is given by

loss Q
Q= = ---------1
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑆
I2z x 𝜌aLx zs I 2 z𝜌 z s
= z =
Ys L Ysaz
Iz Iz zs
= x( ) x𝜌
az Ys

Q= ac x 𝛿 × 𝜌 so heat dissipated per unit area of armature

surface ∝ specific electric loading
a.Temperature rise
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠×𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜−𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
• Temperature,θ =
𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑄𝑋𝐶
• θ=
𝑆
• Θ=qXc temperature rise,Θ = ac x 𝛿 × 𝜌x c
Θ 𝑄
• Specific electric loading,ac= ( =q)
𝛿𝜌 c 𝑆
• Q- loss to be dissipated
• S- dissipation surface
• C-cooling co-eeicient
• The maximum allowable temperature rise of a machine is determined by type of
insulating material. If choosing high value of specific electric loading results more
losses hence better quality insulating material are recommended
b.Cooling co-efficent
Θ
• Specific electric loading,ac =
𝛿𝜌 c
1
• Specific electric loading ∝
cooling co−efficient
• If choosing higher value of cooling c0-efficient, the specific electric
loading used may be lower value,
• The value of cooling co-efficients depends on the ventilating
conditions
• S0, better ventilation provides lower values of cooling co-efficient
voltage
• Area of each slot =heigt of slot x width of slot = dsws
𝜋𝐷 ws
• Total area of all slots = sdsws = dsws = 𝜋𝐷 ds
ys ys
ws
• Total area of conductor(bare) in slots = 𝜋𝐷 ds sf -------1
ys
• Where sf = space factor for slots
𝑎𝑐
• Area total area of conductors(bare) = zas = zIz𝛿 = 𝜋𝐷 ------2
𝛿
Iz
• as az = and zIz = 𝜋𝐷ac
𝛿
• Equating 1 and 2
ac ws
• 𝜋𝐷= = 𝜋𝐷 ds sf
𝛿 ys
ws
• ac= ds = 𝛿 sf --------3
ys
Size of machine
ws
• Specific electric loading ac = ds 𝛿 sf
ys
• in above equation the values are maintained constant and specific
electric loading also constant
Current density
• A low value of current density in its conductor which permits to use
high value of ac in a machine
• Typical values of 40o c temperature rise
• Current density,𝛿= 2 to 5 A/mm2
• Cooling co-efficient ,c = 0.02 to 0.035o c wm2
Thermal considerations
• The thermal circuit is concerned with mode and media for dissipations of
heat produced inside the machine on account of losses
• Rotating electrical machines when working as a generator it converts the
mechanical energy into electrical energy .similarly when working as a
motor it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

• In case of transformer, electrical energy is transferred from one winding to

another winding
• From above discussion, process of energy conversion or transference ,
some waste in energy is inevitable.the losses produced in the machine
generate heat in the various parts of the machine
• This is indicated by the rise in temperature above the ambient
• For reliable operation of the machine, temperature rise in any of the
parts should not exceed the temperature limitation of the insulating
materials used.
• The heat energy is dissipated by means of conduction , convection
and radiation.
• In case of transformer, the heat dissipated by means of conduction is
negligible ,because the transformer is a static machine.
Heat dissipation by conduction
• The heat dissipation in solid parts is partially through conduction.
• Transfer of heat energy from the high temperature region to low
temperature region.
conduction
• This mode of dissipation of heat is important in the case of solid parts
of machine like copper, iron and insulation.
• Consider two points in an electric circuit having potentials v1 and v2
the current flowing between them is
v1 −−v2
• I=
𝑅
• Where R is electrical resistance of the conducting medium between
them.
• Similarly we can write the equation for heat flow for conduction
between two surfaces by a heat conducting medium as

θ1− θ2
• Qcon= --------1
𝑅θ
• Where Qcon is heat dissipated by conduction,w

• θ1− θ2 = temperature of two bounding surfaces ,oc

• 𝑅θ = thermal resistance of the conducting medium ,thermal
ohm,oc/w
• Thermal resistance.
• The thermal resistance is defined as the thermal resistance which
causes a drop of 1oc per watt of heat flow
• The thermal resistance, like electrical resistance can be written as
𝜌𝑡
• 𝑅θ =
𝑆
𝑡
• = 𝜌=thermal resistivity of material ,ohm
𝜎𝑠
• 𝜎 = 1/𝜌 = thermal conductivity ,w/0c –m
• t= length of medium ,m
• S= area of surface separated by the medium,m2
Equ1 can be written as
𝑠(θ1− θ2)
Qcon=
𝜌𝑡
Heat dissipated per unit surface area by conduction is
𝑠(θ1− θ2)
Qcon= w/m2
𝜌𝑡
the temperature difference across the conducting medium
Θ = θ1− θ2
=Q 𝑅
con θ
=Q 𝜌𝑡 we find that a material having a high value of thermal resistivity will
con 𝑆
dissipate less amount of heat
convection
Heat dissipation by convection is classified into two categories
Natural and artificial
Natural convection
Liquid and gas particles near heated body become lighter and rise
giving place to cooler particles which in turn get heated and rise
This natural process due to changes in fluid density is known as natural
convection
Qconv = kc(θ1− θ2)n w/m2
• Kc = a constant depending on the shape and dimension of hot body
• n= a constant depending upon shape and dimensions of hot body
• Its values lies between 1 to 1.25
• Θ1− temperature of emitting surface,0c

• Θ0 - temperature of ambient medium ,0c

• Taking n = 1
• Heat dissipated per unit area by convection
• qconv = kc(θ1− θ2) = λconvΘ where λconv = specific heat dissipation or emssivitydue to
• convection measured in wm2
• total heat dissipated by convection
• Qconv =qconv s =λconvΘ s watt
• Convection is a complicated and heat convected depends upon many
variables such as
• 1.power density
• 2.temperature difference between heated surface and coolant
• 3.height,orientation ,configuration and condition of heated surface
• 4.thermal resistivity ,density specific heat, viscosity and co-efficient of
volumetric expansion of fluid and
• 5.gravitional constant
• Artificial convection
• In modern machines heat is removed by artificial circulation of
cooling medium.
• For eg. A transformer tank may be cooled by blasting air on it or a
turbo alternator may be cooled by circulating hydrogen.
• This is known as cooling by artificial convection
• One of the most widely used formulae for air blasts on open surface is
• λ'conv = λconv(1+kv 𝑣) w/m2 ------o c
• λ'conv = specific heat dissipation of a blasted surface
• λconv = specific heat dissipation by natural convection
• V= relative velocity of cooled surface and air blasts,m/s
• Kv = a constant,depending upon whether the blast is uniform or non
uniform=1.3 for uniform blasts
• The value of kv comes down to even 0.5 for non-uniform blasts
Radiation
• The heat dissipated by radiation from a surface depends upon its
temperature and its other characteristics like colour, roughness
• For the case of very small spherical radiating surface inside a large and or
black spherical shell ,the radiated per unit surface is given by stefen
Boltzmann law
• Qrad =5.7 x10-8 e(T14 –To4 ) w/m2
• T1 , T2 –absolute temperatures of the emitting surface and the ambient
medium
• θ1, θ2 – temperature of the emitting surface and the ambient medium
• E=co-efficient of emissivity
• =1 for perfect black bodies and is always less than unity for others
HEAT FLOW IN TWO DIMENSION
• Consider a coil or core has large
axial length as compared to its
width and thickness is small
• Assume there is a constant
difference of temperature
between the hotter spot and
other point of outer surface
• The heat travels outward of
rectangular section ABCD of
thickness dx along direction bb
and dx w/t in the direction aa