Modern Euclidean Geometry

Fundamental Concepts and Theorems

Concurrence Theorems
 Among the key concepts and theorems from elementary
geometry are the concurrence theorems that identify four
significant points connected with a triangle

 Given ∆ABC, the point at which the secondary parts of the

triangle intersect is called the point of concurrency
 Theorem 1. The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a
triangle are concurrent at a point called the circumcenter.

note: The perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a line perpendicular

to the side and passing through its midpoint.
Any point on the perpendicular bisector of a segment is equidistance
from the endpoints of the segment. This makes the Circumcenter
equidistant from the 3 vertices

The circumcenter gets its name from the fact that it is the center of the
circle that circumscribes the triangle. Circumscribe means to be drawn
around by touching as many points as possible.

To find the center of a circle that will circumscribe any given

triangle, you need to find the point of concurrency of the three
perpendicular bisectors of the triangle
note:
The circumcenter is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle. The
circle drawn with the circumcenter as the center and the radius equal
to this distance passes through all the three vertices and is called
circumcircle . This is the smallest circle that the triangle can be
inscribed in.

The circumcenter lies inside the triangle for acute triangles, on the
hypotenuse for right triangles and lies outside the triangle for
obtuse triangles. The circumcenter coincides with the midpoint of
the hypotenuse if it is an isosceles right triangle.
Acute Right Obtuse
 Theorem 2. The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent at a
point called the orthocenter.
note: The orthocenter of a triangle can inside, on or outside of the triangle

inside on outside
 Theorem 3. The internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle
meet at a point called the incenter.
note:
Any point on an angle bisector is equidistance from the sides of the
angle. This makes the incenter equidistant from all 3 sides and it gets
its name from the fact that the incenter is the center of the incircle, a
circle that is inscribed in the triangle. The three sides of the triangle
are tangent to the incircle
 Theorem 4. The medians of a triangle meet at a point called
the centroid

note: The centroid is a point that is also called the center of gravity
for a triangle
Given ∆ABC, the medians of a triangle intersect at a point that is two
thirds (2/3) of the distance from each vertex of the midpoint of the
opposite side.
The medians of ∆ABC meet at F and AF = 2/3 AE, BF = 2/3 BG,
and CF = 2/3 CD
The centroid is the center of gravity. If the triangle is made of solid
material, then it would balance at the centroid
The four centers of a triangle fall in different places, depending on
what kind of triangle it is
In an acute triangle, the 4 centers are all inside the triangle

Legend: O=orthocenter, I=incenter, C=circumcenter and G=centroid

For a right triangle, the Orthocenter is on the right angle vertex, the
Circumcenter is the midpoint of hypotenuse, and the other 2 centers
are somewhere inside the triangle

Legend: O=orthocenter, I=incenter, C=circumcenter and G=centroid

In an obtuse triangle, the Circumcenter and Orthocenter are outside
the triangle, while the other 2 centers are inside the triangle

Legend: O=orthocenter, I=incenter, C=circumcenter and G=centroid

For a scalene triangle, the 4 centers could be anywhere inside or
outside triangle, depending on whether the triangle is acute, right or
obtuse.
In an isosceles triangle, the 4 centers are collinear. This is true because
in an isosceles triangle, the altitude to the base is also a median and an
angle bisector. This line is the one line of reflection symmetry for the
triangle

Legend: O=orthocenter, I=incenter, C=circumcenter and G=centroid

In an equilateral triangle, all centers are the same point. This is
because the altitude to each side of an equilateral triangle is also a
median and an angle bisector.

Legend: O=orthocenter, I=incenter, C=circumcenter and G=centroid

Applications
The triangle centers have connections to many different fields. These
applications include using radar and sonar in navigation of
airplanes, ships and submarines, undersea explorations in marine
biology and oceanography, weather surveillance, the collection of
data on the movements of animals and migration patterns of
birds.
Euler Line
In any triangle, the centroid, circumcenter, and orthocenter always lie
on a straight line, called the Euler line.

Named after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler

 Theorem 5. The internal bisector of an angle of a triangle
divides the opposite side into two segments proportional to the
sides of the triangle adjacent to the angle.
For any triangle ABC, the bisector of the angle at C divides the
opposite side into segments of length x and y such that
 Theorem 6. The external bisectors of two angles of a triangle
meet the internal bisector of the third angle at a point called an
excenter.
 Theorem 7. The set of all points, such that the distances to two
fixed points have a given ratio, is a circle called the circle of
Apollonius.
note:
The circle of Apollonius is named after the Greek mathematician
Apollonius, who wrote a comprehensive treatment on conic sections,
prior to 200 B.C. Apollonius is often called “The Great Geometer:.
For any triangle ABC, there is a Circle of
Apollonius associated with each vertex. It is
found by constructing the internal and
external angle bisectors for an angle and
locating the intersection points on side
opposite the angle. These intercepts of the
angle bisectors determine the diameter of
the Circle of Apollonius.

Clearly, there is a Circle of Apollonius for

each vertex of triangle ABC.
 Theorem 8. A quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle if and only if
the opposite angles are supplementary

The term cyclic quadrilateral and concyclic are also used for a
quadrilateral inscribed in a circle.
An inscribed quadrilateral is any four sided figure whose vertices all
lie on a circle. (The sides are therefore chords in the circle!) This
conjecture give a relation between the opposite angles of such a
quadrilateral. It says that these opposite angles are in fact supplements
for each other. In other words, the sum of their measures is 180
degrees.
This conjecture says that:
AngleA + AngleC = 180
AngleB + AngleD = 180

The measure of ∟B is ½ of arc ADC (intercepted arc). Since ∟B and

∟D together intercept arcs of 3600, then the angles are supplementary.
A quadrilateral is said to be a cyclic quadrilateral if there is a circle
passing through all its four vertices

In Euclidean geometry, a cyclic quadrilateral or inscribed

quadrilateral is a quadrilateral whose vertices all lie on a single circle.
This circle is called the circumcircle or circumscribed circle, and the
vertices are said to be concyclic (lie on a common circle).
Example
1. Find the area of a triangular region if the length of the sides are 6,
8, and 9 inches.

Solution