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• Electrical power
( Dr\ S.L. Uppa )
1. Power stations .
2. Substations .
3. Busbars .
4. Primary T.L and secondary T.L .
Step Up Transformer Step down Transformer
Power Station
Transmission Line 1 TL2
S
11/500 500/220 220/66
kV kV kV
Busbars
Loads
66/11 11kV/380V
kV
BB
Condenser Cooler
Coal Burner
Boiler
Pump
Turbine Generator
CO2
Reactor Water
Condenser
Fuel rots (Uranium 235)
R L a
Relation between resistance
and temperature rise .
(R 2 R1 ) (T t 2 ) (T t 1 )
t2 t
t1
R
R1 R2
T
The influence of skin effect
on resistance
Uniform distribution of current throughout
the cross-section of a conductor exists
only for D.C.
In A.C, as increased of frequency, the non-
uniformly of distribution of current
becomes more appearance. This case is
called skin effect.
The alternating flux induces higher
voltages acting on the interior
filaments than are induced on
filaments near the surface of the
conductor .
J
La Lb
Xa Xb
r
Za Zb r r
Ia Ib
Definition of inductance
Induced voltage related to change
of flux linkage is :
e d dt (1)
• Where,
ψ is the flux linkages of the circuit in
weber-turns ( wbt ) .
• When the current in a circuit is
changing, the induced voltage must be
changing as a proportional ratio as :
e di dt
e L (di dt ) (2)
Where,
L is the constant of proportionality
inductance of circuit.
From equations ( 1 ) and ( 2 ),
L d di
. x I x 2 x
From equation ( 4 ) in equation ( 3 ) H
H x I ( x 2 2 x r 2 ) I ( x 2 r 2 ) AT / m
B x H x ( xI 2 r 2 ) wb / m 2
d (xI 2 r 2 ) dx wb / m
The flux linkages of length are the product
of the flux per meter of length and the
fraction of the current linkage .
d ( x r ) d
2 2 d ( xI 2 r 2
) dx
( Ix 3 2 r 4 ) dx wbt / m
r
int ( Ix 3 2 r 4 ) dx ( I 8 ) wbt / m
0
Where, r 0
Assuming , r 1
0 4 107 H /m
int (I 2) 107 wbt / m
L int ( int I ) 0.5 107 H /m
Flux linkages between two points external
to an isolated conductor .
In the Fig. P1 and P2 are two points at distance
D1 and D2 from the center of the conductor
which carries a current of (I) :
H x (I 2 x ) AT / m
B x (I 2 x ) wb / m 2
The flux linkages between P1 and P2 are:
D2
12 ( I
D1
2 x ) dx ( I 2 ) ln( D 2 D1 ) wbt / m
1 4
Where, r r1 e
1
The inductance due to current in conductor ( 2 ) is :
L 2 2 107 ln( D r 2)
=0.7411 log10 ( D r 2) mH / mile
If r1 r 2 r
L 4 107 ln( D r )
=1.4822 log10 ( D r ) mH / mile
Inductance between two points external one conductor is one-
half the total inductance of a single-phase line and is called the
inductance per conductor .
Flux linkages of one conductor in
a group
with distance
Let us determine , ( 1 p )1 the flux linkages of conductor,
due to I 1 including internal flux linkages and external
all the flux beyond point ( p ):
1 p 2 107 [I 1 ln(1 r1) I 2 ln(1 D12 ) I 3 ln(1 D13 ) .... I n ln(1 D1n )
+I 1 ln D1 p I 2 ln D 2 p I 3 ln D 3 p .... I n ln D np ]
However , I 1 I 2 I 3 .... I n =0
I n (I 1 I 2 I 3 .... I n 1 )
( D1 p D 2 p ..... Dnp )
p : is infinity far away
1 2 107 [I 1 ln(1 r1) I 2 ln(1 D12 ) I 3 ln(1 D13 ) .... I n ln(1 D1n )
+ ln D1 p (I 1 I 2 I 3 .... I n )] (5)
7
mn
(Daa Dab Dac ...Dam )(Dba Dbb ...Dbm )(Dna ...Dnm )
L x 2n 10 ln[ ] H /m
n2 (Daa Dab Dac ...Daa )(Dba Dbb Dbc ...Dbn )( Dna ...Dn n )
Where
L x = 2 10 ln( G.M.D G.M.R )
7
L Lx Ly
Example (1)
One circuit of a single phase transmission line is
composed of three solid wires ( 0.1 in ) . The return
circuit is composite of two ( 0.2 in radius ) wires . The
arrangement of conductors is shown in fig. . Find the
inductance due to the current in each side of the line
and the inductance of the complete line .
Solution
The G.M.D between side ( x ) and ( y ) is :
ra rb rc r D D
c b
D
Since, I a ( I b I c ) (7)
From equation ( 7 ) in ( 6 ) ,
a 2 107 ln[I a ln(1 r ) - I a ln(1 D )]
=2 107 I a ln( D r ) wbt / m
1
a
D13 D12
3 c b 2
D23
The flux linkages of ( a ) in position ( 2 ) , when ( b )
is in position ( 3 ) and ( c ) in position ( 1 ) , is :
1
c
D13 D12
3 b a 2
D23
The flux linkages of ( a ) in position ( 3 ) , when ( b )
is in position ( 1 ) and ( c ) in position ( 2 ) , is :
1
b
D13 D12
3 a c 2
D23
The average value of the flux linkages of ( a ) is :
a ( a1 a2 a3 ) 3
2 107
a ln[3 I a ln(1 r ) + I b ln(1 D12 D 23 D13 ) + I b ln(1 D12D 23D13 )]
3
I a ( I b I c )
2 107
a ln[3 I a ln(1 r ) - I a ln(1 D12 D 23 D13 )]
3
2 107
= ln[3 I a ln(1 r ) - 3 I a ln(1 3 D12 D 23 D13 )]
3
= 2 107 I a ln( 3 D12 D 23 D13 r )
= 2 107 I a ln( Deq . r )
Deq . D D D
3 p
ab
p
ac
p
cb
D A .B .C
p
sc
3
D q 2πx c m 2
The electric field intensity is equal to the electric
flux density divided by the permittivity of the
medium.
q 2πxk vm
Where
12
k k r ko , ko 8.854 10 F m
D k
Induced voltage is:
V dx
x
V q 2πxk dx
r
= ( q 2πk ) ln( x r )
The potential difference between
two points due to a charge
• Consider a long straight wire carrying a positive
charge of [ q (c/m) ].
• The positive charge on the wire will exert a repelling
force on a positive charge placed in the field.
• The potential difference is independent of the path
followed.
• Thus the instantaneous voltage drop between P1 and
P2 is:
D2 D2
V 12
D1
dx q 2 πxk dx (q 2 πk ) ln( D 2 D1 )
D1
V (1)
Capacitance of a two-wire line
• Capacitance per unit length of the line is:
C q V F m (2)
• From eq.(2) in eq.(1) we get
C 12 q V 12 2πk ln(D2 D1 ) F m
• The voltage between the two conductors of the two
wire shown in the fig.(3) can be found by computing
the voltage drop due to the charge (qa) on conductor
( a ) and assume that conductor ( b ) is uncharged
and then by computing the voltage drop due to the
charge (qb) on conductor ( b ) .
• By the principle of superpose the voltage drop are
computed. We obtained:
V ab (q a 2 πk ) ln( D ra ) (q b 2 πk ) ln(rb D )
a r1 r2
D
Since qa = -qb for a two-wire line .
V ab (q a 2 πk ) [ ln(D ra ) ln(rb D )]
(q a 2 πk ) ln(D ra rb )
2
V
C ab q a V ab 2πk ln( D ra rb )
2
F m
If r a rb r
D13 D12
3 c b 2
D23
• Similarly,
V ac (1 2 πk ) [q a ln(D r ) q b ln(D D ) q c ln(r D )] V
V ab V ac (1 2 πk ) [ 2 q a ln(D r ) (q b q c )ln(r D )] V
V ab 3 V an
V ab ( 3 2) 3 V an J ( 3 2) V an
3 V an [( 3 2) J (1 2)]
• Similarly,
V ac 3 V an [( 3 2) J (1 2)]
V ab V ac 3 V an (4)
• From ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) we get:
3 V an = (3q a 2 πk )ln( D r )
V an = (q a 2 πk )ln(D r )
C an q a V an
C an 2πk ln(D r ) F m
Capacitance of a 3-phase line
with unsymmetrical spacing
• In this condition , the problem of calculating
capacitance becomes more difficult .
• In the usual untransposed line the capacitances of
each phases to neutral are unequal .
• For the line shown in the following Fig.(7)
equations are found for for the three different parts
of the transposition cycle .
With phase ( a ) in position (1) , (b) in position (2) and
( c ) in position ( 3 ) .
V ab (1 2 πk ) [q a ln( D12 r ) q b ln(r D12 ) q c ln( D 23 D 31 )] V
V ab V ac 3 V an
And
Deq D D D3 p
ab
p
bc
p
ca D A .B .C
p 3
sc
D p
ab 4 Dab Dab Dba Dba A 2 r .Da a
D 4 Dbc Dbc Dcb Dcb
p
bc B 2 r .Db b
Ir ZL
Ir XL
∅s Vr
Ir R
∅r Is = Ir
IS IR (6.1a )
V S V R ( R jX L )I R (6.1b )
V R Z I R
V SX V R I R R cos R I R X L sin R
V SY I R X L cos R I R R sin R
V S =[ (V R I R R cos R I R X L sin R ) 2
V S V SX V R I R R cos R I R X L sin R
100
300 103
R
3 197 2
2.58 ohms
X L L length
3
1 1.7 10
= 314 (1 4 logc ) 107 15 103
2 5
=5.75 ohms
V S V R I R R cos R I R X L sin R
= 6,350 + ( 197 2.58 0.8) + ( 197 5.75 0.6)
= 6,350 + 1057
= 7,407 V per phase
= 12,780 V line
( R cos R X L sin R ) V S V R
Regulation =I R =
VR VR
1,057
= 16.7 %
6,350
Medium Transmission line
• It has been mentioned in section 6.2 that the
capacitance of medium length lines is significant.
Vs
Iab
Vab IsXl
∅s
IsR
∅r Vr IrR/2 IrXl/2
Is
Ir
Iab
Vs Vr I Z
Y
Vr ( Ir Vr ) Z
2
Z Y
(1 )Vr Z Ir (6.14.1)
2
Y
Icd Vs
2
Z Y Y
[(1 )Vr Z Ir ]
2 2
• Sending-end current,
Is I Icd
Y Z Y Y
Is Ir Vr [(1 )Vr Z Ir ]
2 2 2
Z Y2 Z Y
( Y+ ) Vr ( 1 ) Ir (6.14.2)
4 2
Vs
Icd Iab ∅s
IZ
IXl
Is
∅r Vr
I IR
Ir Iab
Vr V r jQ
cos r 0.8 , sin r 0.6
Ir I r cos r j I r sin r
=250 0.8 j 250 0.6=200 j 150
Fig.(6.16):Phasor diagram
• Sending-end line voltage ,
=65450 3 113400 v
=113.4 kv
• Phase difference between Vs and Is ,
s 5 11 ( 35 57)
41 8
• Sending-end power factor ,
• Transmission efficiency ,
Power output
T
Power output Power loss
36 10 6
36 10 463.2 10
6 3
3V r I r cosr
T
3V s I s coss
36 10 6
=
3 65450 247 0.7532
=0.986 or 98.6 per cent
Calculation by nominal π method
• The nominal circuit for the line is shown in Fig.( 6.14)
Y
Iab Vr
2
j 39.3 106 60 103 =j 2.35
I Ir Iab
(200 j 150) j 2.35
=200 j 147.65
[(200)2 (147.65)2 ]1 2 tan 1 ( 147.65 200)
245.6 36 26
• Voltage drop per phase ,
Vs Vab I Z
60 103 5136 j 5910
65136 j 5910
1
[(65136) (5910) ] tan (5910 65136)
2 2 12
=65390 3=113.2 kv
Y
Icd Vs
2
6
j 39.3 10 (65136 j 5190)
= 0.232+j 2.557
Sending-end current ,
Is Ir Icd
(200 j 150) 0.232+j 2.557
=199.8 j 145
1
[(199.8) (145) ] tan ( 145 199.8)
2 2 12
=463.6 Kw
• Transmission efficiency ,
36 106
T
36 106 463.6 103
0.9873 or 98.73 per cent
Example
• A three-phase , 50 Hz , 150 km line operates at 110 Kv
between the lines at the sending-end. The total inductance
and capacitance per phase are (0.2 H) and (1.5 μF) .
Neglecting losses calculate the value of receiving-end load
having a power factor of unity for which the voltage at the
receiving-end will be the same as that at the sending-end .
Assume one-half of the total capacitance of the line to be
concentrated at each end .
Solution
• The circuit for the given line is shown in fig.(6.17) . It is a
nominal representation .
110 1000
V r V s 63510 v
3
• Inductive reactance per phase ,
X L 2 fL 2 3.14 50 0.2 62.8
Y 2 fC 2 3.14 50 1.5 10 6
I =Ir Iab
Ir j 14.96
• Sending-end voltage ,
Vs Vr I Z
=V r j 0 (Ir j 14.96)( j 62.8)
=(V r -939.5)+j 62.8 I r
10862
Ir 173 A
62.8
General Network
Constants
Introduction
• A network having two input and two output terminals is
known as a two-port network . It may also be called a two-
terminal-pair network or quadriple network . In fig.(1 .
a,b) represent the input pair terminals and ( c,d ) the output
pair terminals . The two pairs of terminals are usually
shown to be enclosed in a box .
V s AV r BI r
(1.1)
I s CV r DI r
V s A B V r
D I r
(1.2)
I s C
A B
• The matrix C
D is called the transfer matrix or
transmission matrix of the network
Cascaded network
• The overall A , B , C , D constants for several 2-port
networks connected in cascade ( or chain arrangement )
can be found out easily . Fig.( 2 ) shows two cascaded
networks , and one that is the equivalent of both . The
constants of the two component networks are A1 , B1 , C1 ,
D1 and A2 , B2 , C2 , D2 . Let the constants for the
equivalent network be A0 , B0 , C0 , D0 .
V a A2 V r B 2 I r
(2.1)
I a C 2 V r D2 I r
V s A1 V a B1 I a
(2.2)
I s C 1 V a D1 I a
• Substituting the values of Va and Ia from the first
set of equations in the second set , we have :
V s A1 ( A2 V r B 2 I r ) B 1 (C 2 V r D 2 I r )
( A1 A2 B1C 2 ) V r ( A1B 2 B1D 2 ) I r (2.3)
I s C 1 ( A2 V r B 2 I r ) D1 (C 2 V r D 2 I r )
(C 1 A2 D1C 2 ) V r (C 1B 2 D1D 2 ) I r (2.4)
• The sending-end voltage and current for the
equivalent network with constants A0 , B0 , C0 , D0 are
given by :
V s A0 V a B 0 I a
(2.5)
I s C 0 V a D0 I a
V s A1 B1 V a
(2.7)
I s C 1 D1 I a
V a A2 B 2 V r
(2.8)
I a C 2 D2 I r
• Combining these equations ,
V s A1 B1 A2 B 2 V r
C
D2 I r
(2.9)
I s 1
C D1 2
I ss D I rs (3.2)
• Now , the voltage V is applied to the output terminals and
the input terminals are short circuited fig.( 3 ,b ) . The
directions of flow of currents at the input and output
terminals are reversed and the sending-end voltage Vs
becomes zero. Equation ( 1.1 ) become :
0 AV BI r
AV
I r (3.3)
B
I s CV DI r (3.4)
• Since the network is passive , by the reciprocity theorem ,
I s I rs (3.5)
Fig.( 3 )
• Combining equations ( 3.1 ), ( 3.3 ) , ( 3.4 ) and ( 3.5 ) we
get ,
DAV
I rs CV
B
V DAV
CV
B B
• Dividing both the sides of the above equation by -V/B we
get ,
AD BC 1 (3.6)
V s 1 Z V r
I (4.2)
s
I 0 1 r
• By comparing these equations with the general equations
(1.1) and (1.2) the general constants for the series
impedance network can be written as :
A 1 B Z
(4.3)
C 0 D=1
1 Z
• The transfer matrix for the network is
0 1
Shunt admittance circuit
• Fig,( 5 ) , shows a transmission network with a shunt
admittance Y . Such a network may represent the
magnetizing current circuit of a transformer or a shunt
capacitor .
V s V r
(5.1)
I s Y Vr I r
V s 1 0 V r
(5.2)
I s Y 1 I r
• Hence,
A 1 B 0
(5.3)
C Y D=1
Half – T network
• A half – T network is shown in fig.( 6 ) .
V s (1 Z Y ) Z V r
(6.1)
I s Y 1 I r
• Hence,
A 1 Z Y B Z
(6.2)
C Y D=1
• Matrix method , The half – T network can be considered
as the cascade connection of two sections . One section is
a series impedance Z and the other a shunt admittance Y .
The overall constants are obtained from the matrix product
of the transfer matrices of each section in the correct
order.
V s 1 Z 1 0 V r
I s 0 1 Y 1 I r
(1 Z Y ) Z V r
Y 1 I r
Overhead lines and its
mechanical
characteristics
Introduction
• An overhead line comprises mainly of i ) conductor, ii )
supports , iii ) insulators and pole fittings . The function of
overhead lines is to transmit electrical energy , and the
important characteristics which the line conductors must
have are :
a) High electrical conductivity .
b) High tensile strength .
c) Low density .
d) Low cost .
•
Steel
• No doubt it has got the greatest tensile strength , but it is
least used for transmission of electrical energy as it has
got high resistance. It has the following properties :
i) It is lowest in conductivity .
ii ) It has high internal reactance .
iii ) It is much subjected to eddy current and hysterisis loss.
iv ) In a damp atmosphere it is rusted .
a. Wooden poles .
b. Steel tubular poles
c. Reinforced concrete poles .
d. Steel towers .
• Where,
Vkv : is voltage in kilovolts .
d : is diameter of conductor
in inches .
w : is weight of conductor
in lb. per foot run .
D : is sag in feet .
Sag-tension calculations for the
overhead lines
• The theory of sag tension calculation is based on the fact
that when a wire of uniform cross-section is suspended
between two points at the same level , the wire sags down
• The line between the two points must be so tensioned.
Fig.(9):Representation of sag in the conductor suspended between two points
• Let , ( L ) be the length of the conductor POQ ,
suspended between the supports P and Q at the same
level and having a distance L between them .
• Let , O be the lowest point of the centenary so formed,
D be the maximum sag , and let :
w : be the weight of the conductor per unit length .
T : be the tension at any point A of the conductor .
To : be the tension at point O of the conductor , which is
taken as origin .
S : be the length of the conductor OA .
2
W I W 2 l2
D TQ T 0
8 T0 8 T0
Effect of ice covering and wind
over the line
• Under the severest conditions of ice covering and wind ,
the stress over the line is increased to the maximum . The
ice covering over the conductor increase the weight of the
conductor per unit length . Let , ( d cm ) be the diameter
of the conductor and ( r cm ) be the radial thickness of ice.
4
• Sectional area of the ice d2
= (d 2 r )
2
4 4
= [ (d 2 r )2 d 2 ]
4
= [ d 2 4 r 2 4 d r d 2 ]
4
= r ( d r )
• Density of ice 0.915 g / cm3
( d 2 r )
1 sq.m
100
( d 2 r )
Pw 33.7
100
0.337 ( d 2 r ) Kg
Fig.(11):Representation of resultant force acting on the
conductor .
• So , the resultant force Wi acting on the conductor from
figure , is given as :
W i (w w i ) P 2
w
2
Overhead line over supports
different level
• Consider an overhead line POQ , supports over the
supports at points P and Q .
• The difference between supports level is h as shown in
figure(12).
Fig.(12)
• Let , the different between the supports P and Q be h .
• The line POQ forms the parts of the centenary , " POP ".
• Let the horizontal distance between O and support Q be
(x).
• So , distance of support P from O l x
l T h
x
2 l w
Example
An overhead line has a span of 220 meters , the lines
conductor weights 684 km . per 1,000 meters . Calculate the
max. sag in the line , if the maximum allowable tension in the
line is 1,450 kg
Solution
2 l 220 m
W l
Maximum sag = 8 T T 0 1,450 Kg
0