Steam generator /boiler

Definition
 Is a closed vessel in which water is converted into steam
by burning of fuel in presence of air at desired temperature,
pressure and at desired mass flow rate.
 The equipment used for producing and transferring steam is
called Steam generators/ Boilers.
 According to American society of Mechanical Engineers
(A.S.M.E.), a steam generator or a boiler is defined as "a
combination of apparatus for producing, finishing or
recovering heat together with the apparatus for transferring
the heat so made available to the fluid being heated and
vaporized
Boiler or a steam generator is example of heat exchanger. (Heat

exchangers are defined as a mechanical device for exchanging heat

between hot fluid and cold fluid with maximum rate, with minimum
investment and with minimum running cost).

Working principle of boiler

Any type of fuel burn in presence of air and form flue gases which
are at very high temperature (hot fluid). The feed water at
atmospheric pressure and temperature enters the system from other
side (cold fluid). Because of exchange of heat between hot and cold
fluid, the cold fluid (water) temperature raises and it form steam. The
flue gases (hot fluid) temperature decreases and at lower temperature
hot fluid is thrown into the atmosphere via stack/chimney
A steam boiler fulfills the following statements:
 It is part of a type of heat engine or process
Heat is generated through combustion (burning)
It has a working fluid,(heat carrier that transfers the generated heat a
way from the boiler)
The heating media and working fluid are separated by walls
Boiler Process
Boiler process consists of three main steps
Preheating/Economizer: adding of heat to the water that raises the
temperature upto the boiling point of water
Evaporation: the continuing addition of heat to change the phase
from water to steam
Superheating: the heating of steam beyond the boiling temperature
of water
Commercial usage of Steam:
i) Power generation
ii) Heating the residential and commercial buildings in cold weather
countries.
iii) Other industrial usages e.g. sugar industries and chemical
industries etc.
Classification of Boilers
Boilers may be classified according to the following-
1. Relative position of Hot gases and Water
a) Fire tube boiler:
The hot gases passes through the tubes that are surrounded by
water.
 An easy way to remember the principle is to say that a fire-tube
boiler has "fire in the tubes".
Examples of Fire tube boilers are
i) Horizontal return tubular
ii) Locomotive fire box
iii) Scotch marine and,
iv) Vertical tubular
b)Water tube Boiler:
 The water passes through the tubes and the hot gases
produced by combustion of fuel, flow outside.
Examples of Water tube Boiler
 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler (straight but inclined tubes
which connect the headers).
 Stirling Boiler (multitubular boiler having bent tubes
that connect boiler drums to headers).
2. Method of firing
a) Internally fired Boilers:
The furnace is provided inside the boiler shell and is
completely surrounded by water cooled surfaces. This
method of firing is used in:
 Lancashire Boilers
 Locomotive Boilers and
 Scotch Boilers
b) Externally fired Boilers:
The furnace is provided outside/ under the boiler. It has
an advantage that its furnace is simple to construct and
can easily be enlarged, as and when required.
Example: Babcock and Wilcox Boiler.
3) Pressure of Steam:
i) High pressure Boilers
Boilers producing steam 80 bar and above are called High
pressure boilers. E.g.
* Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
* Lamont Boilers
* Velox Boilers and
* Benson Boilers etc.
ii) Low pressure Boilers:
Boilers producing steam Lower than 80 bar are called Low
pressure boilers. E.g.
 Cochran Boilers
 Cornish Boiler
 Lancashire Boiler
 Locomotive Boiler
4. Method of circulation of water:
a) Natural circulation method
Circulation set up by convection current or by gravity.
b) Forced circulation method
Circulation set up for high pressure steam through
pumps.
5. Once through Boilers:
The boilers in which no circulation of water takes place i.e.
the feed water leaves the tube as steam e.g. Benson
Boilers.
6. Position and No. of Drums:
Single or multidrums may be positioned longitudinally or
crosswise.
7. Design of gas passages:
a) Single pass
b) Multipass
8.Nature of Draught:
a) Natural Draught:
when the fuel burns in the furnace of the boiler, with
the circulation of air, the draught is named as Natural
Draught.
b) Artificial Draught:
When the air is forced by means of forced fan, the
draught is named as Artificial Draught.
9. Material of construction of Boiler Shell:
a) Cast Iron Boilers: Low pressure heating Boilers.
b) Steel Boilers: Low pressure heating Boilers.
c) Copper and Stainless steel Boilers: Miniature Boilers.
FIRE TUBE BOILERS
Cochran Boiler
 Simple vertical boiler
 Suitable for small plants require small quantity of
steam.
 Size = 1 m Dia. x 2 m high (evaporation 20kg/hr.)
 Size = 3 m Dia. x 6 m high (evaporation 3000kg/hr.)
 Heating surface= 10 to 25 times of grate area
 Steam pressure = upto 20 bar
 Efficiency = 70 to 75%
Fire tube boiler
FIRE TUBE BOILER

LANCASHIRE BOILER
LANCASHIRE BOILER
LANCASHIRE BOILER
 Internally fired, horizontal, natural draft and natural circulation
type boiler.
 Diameter of tubes is 0.4 times the diameter of shell.
 Each flue tube has its own furnace with grate of about 2 met.
Length.
 Dampers are placed in the path of the flue gases to regulate gas
flow and air inflow.
 Openings are made in the boiler for inspection.
LANCASHIRE BOILER
(Working)
 Flue gases traverse along the horizontal path. To the rear end  bottom
common flue  travel back to front of the boiler  bifurcate pass into
the two sides discharge to the atmosphere through chimney. Perforated
feed pipe controls the feed water boiler strongly heated steam
generates generated steam contains water particles water particles
remove by passing through anti-priming pipe steam taken to stop valve to
supplied to steam engine.
Capacity and Utility)
 Made to withstand working pressure up to 20bar.
 Evaporative capacity 8000 kg/hr.
 Heating surface: grate area 24:30
 Shell size ranges from (2m diameter x 6m length) to (3m diameter x 10m length)
 Widely used in sugar mills, chemical plants, power systems, process works.
 LANCASHIRE BOILER
Advantages
1 Simplicity of design
2 Good steaming quality
3 Can burn coal of inferior
quality
4 Easy to clean and inspect
5 Less maintenance and operating More time taken for developing
cost
Disadvantages
Maximum working pressure is
limited to 20 bar.
More floor area is required due to
brick work setting.
Cracks in setting due to large
temperature difference inside and
out side.
Restricted grate area due to furnace
being inside
steam pressure due to large water
capacity.
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
 Internally fired, horizontal, multi-tubular, natural circulation,
artificial draft fire tube type portable boiler.
Dimensions and specifications:
 Length and diameter of barrel : 5.203m and 2.095m
 Size and number of super heater tubes : 14 cm and 38
 Size and number of fire tubes : 5.72 cm and 116
 Working pressure and capacity : 14 bar and 9000 kg/hr.
 Heating surface and grate area : 271m2 and 4.2 m2
Application
 Uses in railways, road rollers etc.
 Also used in agricultural fields, saw mill plants and stationary
power services where semi- portability is desired.
LOCOMOTIVE BOILER
Advantages Disadvantages
 Large rate of evaporation (55  Incapable of meeting very high
to70kg/sec) per sq. met. Of overloads because of danger of
heating surface. being damaged due to overheat.
 Freedom from brickwork,  Max. steam pressure is limited
chimney and special to 20 bar.
foundations, which reduces the
cost of installation.
 Reasonable low cost and  Leakage occurs frequently at
compactness makes it ideal for the place where the tube joins
portable unit. the plate.
 Large flat surface needs bracing
 Accumulation of mud particles
in water lags cause scale
 WATER TUBE BOILERS
BABCOCK & WILCOX BOILERS
BABCOCK & WILCOX BOILERS
(Constructional features)
 It consist of welded steel high pressure drum mounted at the top.
 Drum is connected with uptake header and down take header.
 Water tubes connected to the headers are inclined at 150 to the horizontal.
 Water tubes are straight and 10cm diameter expended into the bored holes of
header.
 Serpentine from of header provides complete heating surface to the flue gases.
 Furnace is arranged below the uptake header.
Capacity
 Evaporative capacity ranges from 20000 to 40000 kg/hr
 Operative pressure ranges from 11.5 to 17.5 bar.
 Steam formed from such boilers are primarily used to run steam turbines and
generate electric power.
STIRLING BENT- TUBE BOILER

1. Drums are interlinked to each other

with bent water tubes for the following
reasons:
a) To allow free expansion and
contraction of the tubes.
b) Tube replacement become easier.
c) Flexibility in design with regards to
location of drums.
d) Tubes can enter the drums in
approximately radial direction.
2. Mud drum is usually 10 to 25cm larger in
diameter than a steam drum.
3. Entire unit is independent of brick work.
4. High steam pressures (60bar and 4500c).
5. Evaporation capacity up to 50000kg/hr.
 WATER TUBE FIRE TUBE
Water passes through water tubes. Hot gases passes through flues.

Water content: steam capacity low (high speed) Water content: Steam capacity high (Slow speed)

Complexity in design requires quick examination Simple & rigid construction hence greater
by skilled hands. reliability & low operating cost.

Operating pressure up to 200 bar. Pressure ranges from 17.5 bar to 24.5 bar

Evaporation rate ranges from 20,000 to Evaporation rate 900kg/hr.

50,000kg/hr.
Increased heating surface area. Low heating surface area.
Low water to steam ratio Large water to steam ratio
Bigger in size, suitable for large power plants Smaller in size, used only for small power plants

Transportation and installation is easy due to Transportation and installation is difficult due to
handling of dismentaled parts large size of shell.

Externally fired boilers, furnace size can be varied. Internally fired boilers, furnace size can not be
varied.
Requires more floor area Requires less floor area
 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD BOILER
1. Heat generation capability should be at
a) Required pressure
b) Required quality
c) Fast speed
d) Minimum fuel consumption
2. Economic
a) Low initial cost
b) Low installation cost
c) Low operating cost
d) Low maintenance cost
3. Construction:
a) Light in weight
b) Less amount of brick work
c) Occupy small floor area
4.Quick starting.
5.Capable to meet fluctuating demand of steam supply.
6. Easy availability of spare parts
BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
Boiler Mountings
 The necessary devices installed or mounted for the safety of boiler
and its control are called boiler mountings.
Boiler Accessories
 The devices which are installed in the boiler for their efficient
operation and smooth working are called Boiler Accessories
Boiler Mountings for safety
 Two water level indicators – 2
 Two safety valves.
 Combined high steam and low water safety valve.
 Fusible plug.
Boiler Mountings for control
 Pressure gauge
 Junction or stop valve
 Feed check valve
 Blow-off cock
 Man hole and mud hole
Boiler Accessories for efficient operation
 Water heating devices.
 Water feeding devices.
 Super heater
 Economizer
 Air preheater
 BOILER MOUNTINGS
WATER LEVEL INDICATOR
Its function is to indicate level of water, its upper and open in steam
space and lower and opens to water space.
2. PRESSURE
GAUGE
(Bourdon’s)
It is for indicating the
pressure of steam in a boiler
JUNCTION VALVE:

The valve placed directly on a boiler in order to regulate the

steam supply from boiler to steam pipe is called the Junction
Valve.

STOP VALVE:
 The valve used to regulate the steam supply from
the steam pipe to the prime mover (steam engine
or steam turbine) is called Stop Valve.
 It stops or allows the flow of steam from the
boiler to the steam pipe
JUNCTION VALVE
FEED CHECK VALVE

 Feed check valve

works as NRV (Non-
return valve).
 Prevents the back
flow of water from
the boiler when the
feed water pump is
either not working or
in case of its failure.
 BLOW-OFF COCK
It is for removal of sediment periodically collected at the
bottom of the boiler
FUSIBLE PLUG

• Its function is to extinguish

fire in the furnace of a

boiler when the water level
in the boiler fails to an
unsafe extent thereby
preventing the explosion
which may takes

• place furnace plat

MANHOLE

This is provided at suitable position on the boiler

shell so that the man can enter into boiler shell
for inspection, maintenance and repairs. This
hole is usually made in elliptical shape of the
size convenient for a man to enter through this
hole. The opening is closed by steam tight cover.
STEAM TRAP
Steam trap is used to collect and automatically
drain away the water resulted from partial
condensation of steam without steam to escape
with this condensate through a valve. The valve
after draining the condensate is closed. Is presses
the leakage of steam from the trap.
ANTIPRIMING PIPE
It is attached below the stop valve to avoid the water
particles being carried away along with steam. It has
closed pipe with closed ends of 1m and 2m length. The
top side of the pipe has perforations. When the steam
passes through it, due to inertia effect, the moisture of
steam falls into the pipe and the steam with reduced
moisture passes into the stop valve.
 BOILER ACESSORIES
The devices used to improve the performance and
operation of the boilers are called boiler accessories.
Main accessories used are:
BOILER ACCESSORIES

• WATER HEATING DEVICES WATER FEEDING DEVICES

(UPTU- Dec 05)
Used to supply water while the
Used to heat the feed water
before it is fed to boiler with boiler is in operation. These
the help of steam of a steam devices include the use of feed
engine.
pumps either reciprocating type or
Heating of feed water can be centrifugal type.
carried out either by:
1. Open Heater- Direct mixing
2. Closed heater- Indirect
convection
SUPER HEATERS
Superheater
ECONOMISER
AIR PREHEATER
Bensonboiler
Lemont boiler
 Boiler water treatment
Water is the essential medium for steam generation.
Conditioning it properly can increase the efficiency of
the boiler as well as extend the boiler’s life.
Boiler water problems generally fall into two classes
Deposit-related
Corrosion-related
• Deposits and corrosion result in efficiency losses and
may result in boiler tube failures and inability to
produce steam.
• Deposits also act as insulators and therefore slow heat
transfer.
Deposit-Related Problems
Boiler Scale
One of the most common deposit problems is boiler
scale. This happens when calcium, magnesium and
silica, common in most water supplies, react with tube
metal found in boilers to form a hard scale on the interior
of the boiler tubes, reducing heat transfer and lowering
the boiler’s efficiency.
 If allowed to accumulate, boiler scale can eventually
cause the tubes to overheat and rupture.
Scaling is one of the leading causes of boiler tube
failures
Deposit-Related Problems
Boiler Scale
One of the most common deposit problems is boiler scale.
 This happens when calcium, magnesium and silica, common in
most water supplies, react with tube metal found in boilers to form
a hard scale on the interior of the boiler tubes, reducing heat
transfer and lowering the boiler’s efficiency.
Scale forms as the solubilities of the scale-forming salts in water
decreases and the temperature and concentrations of the salts
increases.
When feed water is elevated to boiler water temperature, the
solubility of the scale-forming salts is decreased, and solid scale
begins to form on the boiler systems.
Removing calcium and magnesium or other deposit-forming

materials from the feed water before they enter the boiler system is
the best way to prevent scaling

Effects of Boiler Scale

For example,(3mm) of scale can cause a 2.0-3.0% loss in

fire-tube boilers and water tube boilers

A second but more serious effect from scale is the

overheating of boiler tube metal, causing eventual tube

failure.
Corrosion-Related Problems
Oxygen Attack
dissolved oxygen interacts with boiler component surfaces, forming
“pits” on the metal surface. These pits may eventually grow large
enough to penetrate the metal, forcing a boiler Shutdown
Oxygen which enters the boiler itself can also cause further damage
to steam drums, mud drums, boiler tubes and headers. Damage
can also occur to condensers and condensate piping from oxygen still
present in the steam.
Controlling the oxygen content in the feed-water is done through
dea-eration and chemical treatment.
Dea-erators in steam generating systems use steam to
strip oxygen from the feed water.
Dea-erator can effectively remove almost all the oxygen
from the feed water, without the need to add an additional
oxygen scavenger.
The final traces of oxygen can be removed from the feed
water with an oxygen scavenger
The most common scavenger is sodium sulfite, although
other organic materials also work well.
.
Two of the most common causes of corrosion are the presence of
carbon dioxide and oxygen in the condensate.
Carbon dioxide will form carbolic acid and reduce the pH of the
condensate and cause acid attack while oxygen can directly attack
metal.
The source of carbon dioxide in condensate is usually carbonate
found in boiler water carried over in the steam
The presence of oxygen in condensate can be caused by poorly
operating dea-erators, leakage of air into vacuum condensers,
leakage of cooling water and other factors.
Caustic Attack
Caustic attack on boilers can take two forms: caustic gouging or
caustic cracking, also called caustic embrittlement
Caustic cracking is a form of stress corrosion cracking that happens
when a high concentration of caustic is present at a heated and
stressed steel surface.
Acid Attack
A third corrosion-related problem is caused when the boiler water pH
drops below about 8.5
Boiler Water Treatment
Boiler water treatment is grouped into three main areas:
External treatment
Internal treatment
Condensate treatment
Quality requirements for boiler feed-water and boiler water vary
from system to system. Generally speaking, the higher the steam
pressure, the higher the quality of water that is required.
External Treatment
This type of treatment involves the removal of impurities which
from the boiler feed water.
Treatment falls into three categories, depending on what needs to be
removed:
Removal of suspended solids
Removal of hardness and other soluble impurities
Oxygen removal
The process of clarification or filtration removes most suspended
matter.
One common method involves both processes; the water is first passed
through a clarifier which removes most of the suspended matter, then
a filter, which removes the rest
Removal of Hardness and Other Soluble Impurities
The second type of boiler water treatment involves the removal of
impurities, such as calcium, magnesium and silica.
Common treatment methods to remove these impurities include
lime softening,
sodium zeolite softening,
reverse osmosis
ion exchange demineralization.
Which treatment is most appropriate again depends on the water supply
quality and the purity requirements of the boiler
Calcium and magnesium bicarbonate dissolve in water to form an
alkaline solution and are therefore known as alkaline hardness that can
be removed by boiling.
Calcium and magnesium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates etc.,
when dissolved in water, are chemically neutral and are known as non-
alkaline hardness. which are difficult to remove.
Oxygen Removal with a Dea-erator
The third type of boiler water treatment involves the removal of
dissolved oxygen in the water.
A dea-erator takes advantage of the fact that the solubility of oxygen
in water decreases as the water gets hotter.
The oxygen is removed by spraying the untreated boiler
water onto trays in the dea-erator, where it makes intimate
contact with steam rising through the tray.
The steam heats the water while stripping the oxygen.
Oxygen Scavengers
Most of the oxygen in boiler feed water is removed by the dea-
erator but trace amounts are still present which can, over time,
cause boiler corrosion.
To prevent this, oxygen scavengers are added to the boiler water,
preferably in the storage tank of the dea-erator so the scavenger
will have the maximum time to react with the residual oxygen.
The most commonly used oxygen scavenger is sodium sulfite
Blow down
Blow down is a very important part of any water treatment program.
Its purpose is to limit the concentration of impurities in the boiler
water.
The right amount of blow down is critical:
too much blow down results in energy loss and excessive chemical
treatment cost
too little blow down and excessive concentrations of impurities
build up.
There are no hard and fast rules as to the amount of blow down
because of the variation in water quality varies from place to place. It
can range from 1% (based on feed water flow) to as much as 25%
Blow down can be from
water surface in the steam drum,
The mud drum
 Bottom header
 the bottom of the boiler.
Blow down can be
continuous or
intermittent