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History of Microbiology

Dr. Kirankumar Hullatti


Brief history of the science of
microbiology
• Concept of spontaneous generation
• Experiments that were performed to disprove
this erroneous idea

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Concept of spontaneous generation
• Spontaneous generation or anomalous
generation is an obsolete body of thought on
the ordinary formation of living organisms
without descent from similar organisms
– Fleas could arise from inanimate matter such as
dust
– Maggots could arise from dead flesh
– Flies from bovine manure and
– fish from the mud of previously dry lakes
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• Several experiments have been conducted to
disprove spontaneous generation

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Redi's Experiment (1668)

• In 1668, Francesco Redi, an Italian scientist,


designed a scientific experiment to test the
spontaneous creation of maggots by placing fresh
meat in each of two different jars.

• One jar was left open; the other was covered


with a cloth.

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Redi's Experiment
• Days later, the open jar contained maggots, whereas the
covered jar contained no maggots.

• He did note that maggots were found on the exterior


surface of the cloth that covered the jar.

• Redi successfully demonstrated that the maggots came


from fly eggs and thereby helped to disprove spontaneous
generation.

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John Needham challenge (1748)
• In England, John Needham challenged Redi's
findings by conducting an experiment in which
he placed a broth, or “gravy,” into a bottle,
heated the bottle to kill anything inside, then
sealed it.
• Days later, he reported the presence of life in
the broth and announced that life had been
created from nonlife. In actuality, he did not
heat it long enough to kill all the microbes.

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In actuality, he did not heat it
long enough to kill all the
microbes.

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Spallanzani's Experiment (1768)
• Lazzaro Spallanzani, also an Italian scientist,
reviewed both Redi's and Needham's data
• He constructed his own experiment by placing
broth in each of two separate bottles, boiling
the broth in both bottles, then sealing one
bottle and leaving the other open.

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Spallanzani's Experiment (1768)
• Days later, the unsealed bottle was teeming
with small living things that he could observe
more clearly with the newly invented
microscope.
• The sealed bottle showed no signs of life.

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Spallanzani's Experiment (1768)
• This certainly excluded spontaneous
generation as a viable theory.
• Except it was noted by scientists of the day
that Spallanzani had deprived the closed
bottle of air, and it was thought that air was
necessary for spontaneous generation.

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Pasteur's Experiment (1860)
• Louis Pasteur, the notable French scientist,
accepted the challenge to re-create the
experiment and leave the system open to air.
• He subsequently designed several bottles with
S-curved necks that were oriented downward
so gravity would prevent access by airborne
foreign materials.

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swan neck duct flask

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Pasteur's Experiment
• He placed a nutrient-enriched broth in one of
the goose-neck bottles, boiled the broth
inside the bottle, and observed no life in the
jar for one year.
• He then broke off the top of the bottle,
exposing it more directly to the air, and noted
life-forms in the broth within days.

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Pasteur's Experiment
• He noted that as long as dust and other
airborne particles were trapped in the S-
shaped neck of the bottle, no life was created
until this obstacle was removed.
• Pasteur won the Alhumbert Prize in 1862 for
this work

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“Never will the doctrine of
spontaneous generation recover
from the mortal blow of this simple
experiment.
There is no known circumstance in
which it can be confirmed that
microscopic beings came into the
world without germs, without
parents similar to themselves”
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Tyndall’s Experiment
• John Tyndall (1820-1893) demonstrated that
dust did carry microbes and that if dust was
absent, the broth remained sterile-even if it
was directly exposed to air; Tyndall also
provided evidence for the existence of heat-
resistant forms of bacteria

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The Role of Microorganisms in
Disease
• Agostino Bassi (1773-1856)
showed that a silkworm
disease was caused by a
fungus
• M. J. Berkeley (ca. 1845)
demonstrated that the Great
Potato Blight of Ireland was
caused by a fungus.

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The Role of Microorganisms in
Disease
• Louis Pasteur showed that the péine disease
of silkworms was caused by a protozoan
parasite

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The Role of Microorganisms in
Disease
• Joseph Lister (1872-1912) developed a system
of surgery designed to prevent
microorganisms from entering wounds; his
patients had fewer postoperative infections,
thereby providing indirect evidence that
microorganisms were the causal agents of
human disease; his published findings (1867)
transformed the practice of surgery

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Joseph lister carbolic spray

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The Role of Microorganisms in
Disease
• Robert Koch (1843-1910), using criteria
developed by his teacher, Jacob Henle (1809-
1895), established the relationship between
Bacillus anthracis and anthrax; his criteria
became known as Koch's Postulates and are
still used to establish the link between a
particular microorganism and a particular
disease:

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Koch's Postulates
• The microorganisms must be present in every
case of the disease but absent from healthy
individuals
• The suspected microorganisms must be isolated
and grown in pure culture
• The same disease must result when the isolated
microorganism is inoculated into a healthy host
• The same microorganism must be isolated again
from the diseased host
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The Role of Microorganisms in
Disease
• Charles Chamberland (1851-1908)
constructed a bacterial filter that removed
bacteria and larger microbes from specimens;
this led to the discovery of viruses as disease-
causing agents Immunological studies

Pasteur–Chamberland filter
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The Role of Microorganisms in
Disease
• Edward Jenner (ca. 1798) used a vaccination
procedure to protect individuals from
smallpox
• Louis Pasteur developed other vaccines
including those for chicken cholera, anthrax,
and rabies

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Smallpox is more dangerous than
variolation and cowpox less dangerous
than variolation.
Hypothesis:
Infection with cowpox gives immunity
to smallpox.
Test:

If variolation after infection with


cowpox fails to produce a smallpox
infection, immunity to smallpox has
been achieved.

Consequence:
Immunity to smallpox can be induced
much more safely than by variolation.

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The Role of Microorganisms in
Disease
• Emil von Behring (1854-1917) and
Shibasaburo Kitasato (1852-1931) induced
the formation of diphtheria toxin antitoxins in
rabbits; the antitoxins were effectively used to
treat humans and provided evidence for
humoral immunity
• Elie Metchnikoff (1845-1916) demonstrated
the existence of phagocytic cells in the blood,
thus demonstrating cell-mediated immunity

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Industrial Microbiology and Microbial
Ecology
• Louis Pasteur demonstrated that alcoholic
fermentations were the result of microbial
activity, that some organisms could decrease
alcohol yield and sour the product, and that
some fermentations were aerobic and some
anaerobic; he also developed the process of
pasteurization to preserve wine during storage

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Industrial Microbiology and Microbial
Ecology
• Sergei Winogradsky (1856-1953) worked with
soil bacteria and discovered that they could
oxidize iron, sulfur, and ammonia to obtain
energy; he also studied anaerobic nitrogen
fixation and cellulose decomposition

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Industrial Microbiology and Microbial
Ecology
• Martinus Beijerinck (1851-1931) isolated
aerobic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, a root-nodule
bacterium capable of fixing nitrogen, and
sulfate reducing bacteria
• Beijerinck and Winogradsky pioneered the
use of enrichment cultures and selective
media

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