Chapter 5 Transceiver Architecture

W.S. Wuen

Copyright © 2000, W.S. Wuen

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1. Communication Transceiver Overview

Transceiver Building Blocks

Information Coding/Decoding
Modulation/demodulations
Frequency Shift

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Transceiver Building Blocks

Transmitter Channel Receiver

A/D Coding Mod. TX

Scramble
Protocol Framing

RX Demod Decoding D/A

Protocol

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Information Coding

Bluetooth Audio
Continous Variable Slope Delta-Modulation (CVSD)

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 . . . . . . .

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BT Packets

72 54 0-2745

access code packet header payload

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GSM Packets

Times Frames, Time Slots and Bursts

1 hyperframe = 2048 superframes = 2715648 TDMA frames ( 3h 28min 53s 760ms )

0 1 2 3 2044 2045 2046 2047

0 1 2 3 47 48 49 50

0 1 24 25

1 superframes = 1326 TDMA frames ( 6.12s )

= 51 (26-frame) multiframes or 26 (51-frame)multiframes
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BT Error Control Coding

Forward-Error Correction (FEC)

1/3 rate: bit-repeat code
2/3 rate: (15,10) shortened Hamming code
Automatic Retransmission Query (ARQ)
1-bit fast ACK/NAK
1-bit sequence number
header piggy-backing

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Modulation/Demodulation

(1): Baseband TX/RX

Baseband Tx

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 Baseband RX

1 0 0

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(2): Passband TX/RX :

Modulation ( Transform baseband signal to radio signal )

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Wave being transmitted in wireless environment :

 Impairments: Carrier wave and Timing

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[Example] BPSK:
Data: ai = { 1 ,0, 1, 0 … }
Data to phase : (t) = 0 if ai=1, (t) = if ai=0
Modulated data signal : S(t) = Acos( ct+ (t) ) = Acos(ct)
BPF
Antenna

Data in Data to phase Mod BPF ANT

ANT Amp BPF Carrier DeMod Decoding

Recovery - Correlation
- Integral
- Decision
- Timing
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Received: V(t) = Acos(ct + ) : phase delay caused by transmission.

Carrier recovery : V2(t) = A2cos2 (ct + ) = (1/2)[A2 + A2cos2(ct + )]

Freq. divided by 2  carry recovered: cos(ct + )

Demodulation by multiply:
Acos(ct + ) · 2cos(ct + ) = (A)[1 + cos2(ct + )]
Lowpass filtering for cos2(ct + ) and I(t) =+A extracted !
T
0
dt

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Frequency Shift

Design Parameters: Spectral Processing, Selectivity, Sensitivity

Coder Modulator RF Front RF Demodulator DeCoder

* ECC * Mod End Front
* Encryption * Spreading End

101100111..

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Frequency Shift Basics

m(t)cosct x m(t)cosIFt ( IF= c+LO)

2cosLOt

2m(t)cosctcosLOt=m(t) cos(c-LO)t+cosLO (c+LO) t

e.g. : IF=281MHz c=2.4GHz ….. LO=(2400-281) MHz

Image Signal : c+ 2 IF IF’= ( c+ 2 IF ) + LO

= ( c+ 2 IF ) + (IF + c )
= IF
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Constant Envelope Modulation

 GMSK v.s MSK

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 GFSK v.s FSK

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 Bluetooth v.s GSM

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Design Criteria for Communications

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2. RF Transceivers

 Transceiver Overview
 Receiver Performance Spec.
 Transmitter Performance Spec.
 Receiver Architecture
 Transmitter Architecture
 Receiver Link Budget

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General Considerations

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Transceiver
Role of a Transmitter
Information

2. add data to carrier

HPMX-2007

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3. shift to high
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Modulator
frequency A
D
Mixer
I Data

0
uP/
Antenna

90
DSP

Power Amplifier Baseband

A Q Data Processor
4. amplify to D
broadcast
Oscillator
bias bias

1. create carrier
Power Supply

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Role of a Receiver

Information
4. discard carrier and
HPMX-2007

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recover data
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2. shift to lower frequency

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(cost and/or performance) De-Modulator

A
D Baseband
Mixer Processor
I Data

0
uP/
Antenna

90
DSP

Low Noise Amplifier

A Q Data
D
1. amplify received signal
with min. added noise
Oscillator
bias bias bias

3. LO for down conversion

Power Supply

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Receiver Performance Spec.

 Sensitivity
 Selectivity
 Spurious Response Rejection
 Intermodulation Rejection
 Receiver Self-quieting
 Dynamic Range

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Sensitivity

 Adjacent Channel Interference  Co-Channel Interference

Adjacent Adjacent 890.4 890.4

Channel Channel

Desired
Channel

890.4 890.4 890.4

890.4 890.4
890.4 890.4 890.6 MHz
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Sensitivity

Noise Floor  Pnf (dBm)  kTB(dBm)  Freceiver (dB)

Sensitvity  Pin ,min (dBm)  kTB(dBm)  Freceiver (dB)  SNRmin (dB)
 Pnf (dBm)  SNRmin (dB)

Desired Signal

Receiver Added Noise

Receiver Thermal Noise

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Sensitivity

Power to Antenna: +40 dBm Transmitter:

TX. Antenna Gain: +10 dB ERP + 50 dBm
Frequency: 10 GHz Path Losses -200 dB
Bandwidth: 100MHz Rcvr. Ant. Gain 60 dB
Rcvr. Antenna Gain: +60 dB Power to Receiver -80 dBm

Receiver:
Noise Floor @ 290K - 174 dBm/Hz
Noise in 100 MHz BW + 80 dB Margin: 4 dB
Receiver N.F. +10 dB
ERP = +50 dBm
Path Losses: 200 dB Receiver Sensitivity -84 dBm

How to increase Margin by 3dB ?

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Calculate Receiver Noise Figure

 Stage Thermal Noise

 Image Noise
 LO Wideband Phase Noise

F2  1 F3  1 F4  1
Ftot  F1    
G1 G1G2 G1G2G3

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Selectivity
 IF filter rejection at the adjacent channel

 LO spurious in IF bandwidth

 Phase noise of LO

RF Filter

IF Filter

Receiver Added Noise

Receiver Thermal Noise
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Selectivity

RF Filter IF Filter

Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n

fIF freq
fRF freq

fLO freq 35
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Spurious Response

fRF n  fRF fIF

fLO m  fLO

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Spurious Reponses

IF  n  RF  m  LO
IF LO
 m n
RF RF
IF LO
y ,x 
RF RF
y  mx n
m  n  order of spurious response
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Spurious Response Chart

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Intermodulation Rejection

1
IP 3output  ( mW )
1

i IP 3 G Gi 2 Gn
i i 1

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Receiver Self-quieting

n  fLO 2
fIF 1 fIF 2
fRF

fLO1 fLO 2
n  fLO 2

fRF  fLO1  fIF 1  n  fLO 2

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Dynamic Range

Pout DR1dB  P1dB ,in  Pin ,min

1dB
 P1dB ,in  Pnf  SNRmin
Psf,out DRsf  Psf ,in  Pin ,min
2PIIP 3  PIM ,in
SNR   Pin ,min
3
PIM,out 2PIIP 3  Pnf
P P P Pin
  Pin ,min
PIIP3 3
Pnf DRsf Psf,in
2(PIIP 3  Pnf )
DR1dB   SNRmin
Pin,min P1dB,in 3
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Transmitter Performance Spec.

 Output Power
 Spurious Emission
 Adjacent Channel Power Ratio; ACPR
 Frequency Stability

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Output Power
EIRP=Gt•Pt

Pr

 λ  1
2
Loss factor not
Pr  Pt G t G r   related to propagation
 4πd  L
P    λ 
2
1 
PL  10 log  r 
  10 log G t G r  
 Pt    4πd  L 

f (GHz) d(m) Path Loss(dB) Pt(dBm) Pr(dBm) L(dB)
2.45 10 60.23 20 -70.23 30

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Spurious Emission

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Adjacent Channel Power Ratio

 Definition depends on specification

Padjacent
Main
ACPR 
Pmain
Channel

Adjacent
Channel
Pmain
Padj

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Receiver Architectures

 Heterodyne Receiver
 Direct Conversion Receiver
 Low-IF Receiver
 Image Reject Receiver

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Heterodyne Receiver
 IF receiver

RF b(t)
A
D

a(t) IF

LO1 LO2

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Problem of Image Signal

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Problem of Image Signal

  image  LO RF 

IF
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Problem of Image Signal

 Solution: Image Rejection Filter

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Problem of Half IF
 Second order harmonic

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How to Select IF?

 Spurious Response
 Image Rejection v.s. Channel Selection
 Filter Availability

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Image Rejection v.s. Channel Selection

Image Channel
Reject Select
Filter Filter

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Filter Availability
 Example 1
 f =1800MHz
RF

 fIF=10MHz
 Is this filter available?

1780 1800
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IF Selection

 Usually fRF/fIF<10
 Example 2 (Multistage IF)
 f =900MHz
RF

 fIF1=250MHz
 fIF2=50MHz
 fIF3=10MHz

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Summary of Heterodyne Receiver

 Down converts RF to IF thus introduces image problem;
avoid image signal by image reject filter
 As frequency / bandwidth increases, multi-stage IF is
necessary
 Not suitable for integration due to offchip filters
 Sensitive to external parasitic signal
 Expensive and high power consumption

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Direct Conversion Receiver

 Zero-IF Receiver

A
D
0 0

cos0 t

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Mirror Signal
 Upper sideband and lower sideband are identical

 LO

 0 RF 

0
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Mirror Signal
 Upper sideband and lower sideband are not identical

 LO

 0 RF 

0
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Mirror Signal Suppression

 Quadrature Down Conversion

ui(t) vi(t)
A
D I

0
90

a(t)
A
D Q
uq(t) vq(t)

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Quadrature Conversion

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Quadrature Down Conversion

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DC Offset (Self-mixing)

x offset ,LO (t )
A
D
c 0
capacitive coupling Saturates the following stages
substrate coupling
bondwire coupling
c aLO(t)=ALOcos(c+)
x offset ,RF (t )
A
D
c 0

c
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DC Offset (Self-mixing)

+
level

DC Offset

-
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DC Offset Cancellation
 Capacitive Coupling
 Requires a large capacitor

 Negative Feedback
 Nonlinear

 TDMA Offset Cancellation

-A
 Requires a large capacitor

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I/Q Mismatch

Phase & Gain Error

0
Phase & Gain Error
90

a(t)
Q

Phase & Gain Error

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I/Q Mismatch
Phase error

Gain error

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Even-Order Distortion

0
Direct feed through

Direct feed through

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Summary of Direct Conversion Receiver

 No need for imager reject filter

 Suitable for monolithic integration with baseband
 DC offsets due to crosstalk of input ports of mixer
 Even order IM direct feed through to baseband
 Quadrature down conversion suppresses mirror
 I/Q mismatch due to mismatches in parasitics
 Low power consumption attributes to less hardware

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Low-IF Receivers

Mirror
Signal
Suppression
&
0
90 Final
Down
Conversion

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Low-IF Down Conversion

Complex
BPF

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Mirror Signal Suppression (1)

Complex
Bandpass
Filter

I Q I Q
LO1 LO2

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Mirror Signal Suppression (2)

I Q I Q
LO1 LO2

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90 degree phase shift

sin ωt 90° sin ωt  90    cos ωt

sin ωt  cos ωt

j
 j/2

0
ω  0
ω  0
ω

 j/2 1 / 2 1 / 2
j
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Image Reject Receiver

 Hartley Architecture

A C

-90°

sin ω LOt
RF IF
LO
0
input
90

output
cos ω LOt

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Hartley Architecture

 LO 
  LO 0
 j /2
xcos
  90  
X A ( ) 0 0


 j /2 0
xsin
X B ( ) 
0 
 0
0

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Image Reject Receiver

 Weaver Architecture

A C

sin ω LO1t sin ω LO2t

RF IF
LO1
0

0
input LO2
90

90
output
cos ω LO1t cos ω LO2t

B D

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Weaver Architecture

 ω LO 1 0 ωLOLO1 

 j/2  j/2 X C ( )
 ω LO 2 
X A ( ) 0 0
  ω LO 2 0

 j/2 0
 j/2

1/2 1/2 X D ( )
X B ( ) 
0 
0
  ω LO 2 0 ω LO 2 
0 0

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Transmitter Architecture

 Direct Conversion Transmitter

 Two-step Conversion Transmitter
 Offset PLL Transmitter

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 Direct-conversion transmitter

I 90
0

Q
LO

Pros: less spurious synthesized

Cons: more LO pulling
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 Direct-conversion transmitter with offset LO

0
90
1 LO
Q
2
Pros: less LO pulling
Cons: more spurious synthesized
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 Two-step transmitter

I
0
90

cos1t 12
Q cos2t

Pros: less LO pulling

superior IQ matching
Cons: required high-Q bandpass filter
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 Offset PLL transmitter

I
0

PD/LPF VCO
90

cos1t
Q
1/N

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Receiver Link Budget Analysis

 Noise Figure Calculation

 IP3 Calculation
 Image Rejection Calculation
 Frequency Planning

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Noise Figure Calculation

SNRin SNRmin
RF input NF Baseband
Pnf
receiver
Es Rsymbol Es  Rsymbol 
SNRmin    SNRmin (dB )  (dB )  10 log 
N0 BW N0  BW 
Standard Bandwidth 10log(BW) Sensitivity(dBm) Noise Floor (dBm) SNRin(dB) NF(dB) SNRmin(dB)
DECT 1.70E+06 62.30 -83.00 -111.50 28.50 18.20 10.3
GSM 2.00E+05 53.01 -102.00 -120.79 18.79 9.79 9
WLAN 2.00E+06 63.01 -80.00 -110.79 30.79 15.69 15.1

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Es/No or Eb/No=?

17!
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IP3 Calculation

2(PIIP 3  Pnf )
DRsf   SNRmin
3
3
PIIP 3   DRsf  SNRmin   Pnf
2
P1dB  PIIP 3  10

Standard DR SFDR IIP3 Pmax Bandwidth 10log(BW) Sensitivity(dBm)

Bluetooth 50.00 36.57 -10.00 -20.00 1.00E+06 60.00 -70.00
GSM 87.00 61.67 -5.00 -15.00 2.00E+05 53.01 -102.00
WLAN 76.00 52.30 6.00 -4.00 2.00E+06 63.01 -80.00

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Image Rejection Calculation

PImage

IRrequired
Pdesired

SNRmin

fIF fLO fRF

IRrequired  Pimage  Pdesired  SNRmin

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Intresil PRISMTM I Chipsets

[1]

A Complete DS Spread Spectrum Radio Chipset

ADC CCA

I ADC
HFA3424 DE- DE-
LNA SPREAD MODULATE
Q ADC

HSP3824
LO Tx/Rx
BASEBAND
HFA3624 DATA I/O
HFA3724 PROCESSOR
RF/IF QMODEM

MODULATE/ CONTROL -
SPREAD
ENCODE TEST I/O

HFA3925
RF POWER
AMPLIFIER
AND Tx/Rx
SWITCH
HFA3524
DUAL
SYNTHESIZER
AP96358 4-4
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System Link Budget

Ga in a t
S tag e # No is e fig ure Gain im a g e IIP3 NF Gain Pre-s t
[dB] [dB] [dbm] [lin] [lin] gain(lin) db
Filter#1 1.5 -1.5 99 1.41254 0.70795 1 0
T/R Switch 1 -1 30 1.25893 0.79433 1 0
LNA(3424) 1.9 14 1 1.54882 25.1189 0.70795 -1.5
LNA#2(3624) 3.5 15.5 1.5 2.23872 35.4813 17.7828 12.5
Filter#2(out) 4 -4 -10 99 2.51189 0.39811 630.957 28
RF Mixer(3624) 15 SSB 6 1.5 31.6228 3.98107 251.189 24
Filter #3(RF-IF) 4 -4 99 2.51189 0.39811 1000 30
LimAmp(3724) 7 80 999 5.01187 1E+08 398.107 26
IF Mixer(3724) 15 8 999 31.6228 6.30957 4E+10 106
Tune Filter(3724) 1 -1 999 1.25893 0.79433 2.5E+11 114
De te ctor(3824) 15 0 999 31.6228 1 2E+11 113

Tota l gain 112 dB RECEIVER SENS ITIVITY

Eq. inp noise figure4.236132 dB Equiv input noise figure Finp 4.23 dB 2.6485
2.652242 linear Tempera ture T 25 deg C 298.15
Eq. inp noise temp 479.1503 K Equiv noise bandwidth B 2000 kHz 2000000
-22.80989109 dBm Required (S +N)/N at IF output R 15.1 dB 32.3594
Equivalent input intercept point S ystem impedance Rg 50 ohms
RCVR sens itivity -107.535 dBm
S ensitivity e 5.939563 micro V

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RF Specification for IEEE 802.11a 5-GHz Wireless LAN

Frequency Channel Plan

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Frequency Channel Plan

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Channel numbering

36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 149 153 157 161

5150 5180 5200 5220 5240 5260 5280 5300 5320 5350 5532.5 5725 5745 5765 5785 5805 5825

30 30 375 20 20

 Regulation
 FCC 15.204, 15.209, 15.401-407

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Transceiver Block Diagram

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Major parameters of OFDM

 Modulation
 BPSK OFDM

 QPSK OFDM

 16-QAM OFDM

 64-QAM OFDM

 Error Correction Code

 K=7, 64 state convolutional code

 Coding Rate
 ½,2/3,¾

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Major parameters of OFDM

 Number of Subcarriers
 52

 OFDM symbol duration

 4.0us

 Guard interval
 0.8us(T )
GI

 Occupied bandwidth
 16.6MHz

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Transmitter Spec

 In-/Out-of- band Spurious Emission

 FCC 15.407,

 TX center freq. tolerance

 20ppm maximum

 Fc and symbol clock freq should be derived from the

same reference oscillator.

 Symbol clock frequency tolerance
 20ppm maximum

 TX center freq. leakage

 <-15dB relative to TX power or +2dB relative to the

average energy of the rest of the subcarriers.

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TX Power levels

 5.15-5.25 GHz
 40mW (2.5mW/MHz)

 5.25-5.35 GHz
 200mW (12.5/MHz)

 5.725-5.825 GHz
 800mW (50mW/MHz)

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TX Spectrum Mask

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Transmitter Spec

 TX Spectral flatness
 ?

 TX constellation error

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Receiver Specification

 Receiver minimum I/P sensitivity

 NF of 10dB and 5dB implementation margins are assumed.
 Packet error rate (PER) < 10% at a PSDU length of 1000 bytes.

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Receiver Specification

 Adjacent/Non-adjacent channel rejection

 Desired signal level: 3dB of sensitivity

 Power difference between interfering and the desired

channel is the corresponding Adjacent/Non-adjacent

Channel Rejection
 Interfer

 conformant OFDM, unsynchronized to the desired channel

under test.

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Receiver Specification

 Receiver maximum input level

 -30dBm

 CCA sensitivity
 The start of a valid OFDM transmission at a receive

level >= -82dBm shall cause CCA to indicate busy with

a probability > 90% within 4us.
 If the preamble portion was missed, the receiver shall

hold the carrier sense (CS) signal busy for any signal
20dB above the minimum 6Mbit/s sensitivity (-62dBm).
 RSSI: 0-8bits (256 levels)

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Propagation Model

Line of Site Propagation

LOS Radio Transmission
Design Essentials
Path Analysis Approaches

Outdoor Propagation
Conceptual layout of a cellular system
Radio propagation in the mobile environment
Impairments – fading in the mobile environment

Indoor Propagation

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Path Analysis Approaches

( 1.) Calculate EIRP

(effective isotropically radiated power)
at the transmit antenna.
( 2.) Calculate free-space loss
between TX & RX
( 3.) Calculate RSL
(Receive Signal Level)
at the first active stage of receiver.

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EIRP = transmitter power output - line losses +

antenna gain(dB)
IRL = EIRP + Free-space path loss
RSL = IRL + receiver antenna gain + receiver
transmission line loss.

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Free Space Path Loss: Pt Gt Gr( ) 2

Friis free space equation: Pr(d)=
(4 ) d L
2 2

Pt: transmitted power Pr(d): received power

Gt : transmitted antenna gain Gr: receiver antenna gain
L: system loss factor not relate to propagation

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EIRP = PtGt Pt Gt Gr(  ) 2

Pr (d)=
( 4 ) d L
2 2

Free-space path loss :

PL = 10log (Pt/Pr )= -10log (Pr/Pt )

= -10logGtGr 2 / (4d)2. (=c/f )
(Unit Gain Antenna, Gt=Gr=1)
= -10log 2 / (4d)2. (=c/f )
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= -10log 2 / (4d)2. (=c/f )

= -10logc 2 / (4df)2. (=c/f =3*105km/f=3*105*10-9/f(GHZ)*10-9)
= -20logc+20log420log10FGHz20log10D

= 96.6 + 20log10FGHz + 20log10D

(path distance in statute miles)
= 92.4 + 20log10FGHz + 20log10Dkm
92.44176

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Noise Analysis
Noise Concepts

Small
Signal

DUT

Imperfect
Amplifier

Signal larger
Thermal Agitation of Electrons adds But Noisier
noise to the signal

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Noise Voltage

 Nyquist
 Noise voltage produced by a resistor

2
v n  4 kTRB
k  Boltzman' s constant (1.38  10 -23 Joules/k )
T  absolute temperatur e
B  bandwidth in Hz R
R  resistor value in Ω
v n  rms noise voltage vn

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Available Noise Power

Thermal
k = 1.38 x 10 joule / k
R -jX T = Temperature (K)
R+jX L L B = Bandwidth (Hz)

Available Noise Power,

Pav = kTB

(Power Delivered to a Conjugate Load),

(i.e. R = R, X = X)
Note: At Standard Temperature T (=290K) : kT = 4 x 10 -21 W/Hz = 174dBm / Hz

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Noise added by Amplifier

-40 -40
Input Power Level (dBm)

-60 -60

Na Noise Added (Na)

-80 -80

Noise (in) x Gain [N

-100 -100 in G]

Noise (in)

-120 -120
2.4 2.45 2.5 2.4 2.45 2.5

Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)

To = 290K
Na
Gain 20dB Np = Na + Nin G
NF 10dB Nin at 290K Imperfect Amplifier
Degrades Signal to
Noise Ratio
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Noise Factor/Noise Figure

 Definition
 Noise Factor
input S /N ratio
 Noise Figure
F  1
output S /N ratio
NF  10 log 10 F
Si Si
N Ni No total output noise
F  i   
So GS i GN i output noise dut to input source resistance
No No
Gain
G  N i  N a ,input  GN i  N a
 
GN i GN i
N a ,input So/No
1  Si/Ni
Ni

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Noise Temperature

 Input Noise Power

 Thermal noise of the source

 Reference temperature

N i  kTB
T 0  290 K  17  C
 Available noise powerNata ,output
input kT n B T
F 1  1  1  n
Ni kT 0 B T0

T n  ( F  1 )T 0 N a ,input  ( F  1 )N i

N o  G ( N i  N a ,input )  ( F  1 )kT 0 B

 GkT 0 B  G ( F  1 )kT 0 B
 FGkT 0 B
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Noise Figure of Cascade Networks

G1 N1 G2 Ntot,1 Gtot Ntot

F1 F2 Ntot,2 Ftot

N tot  Ftot G tot kT 0 B  Ftot G1G 2 kT 0 B  N tot ,1  N tot ,2

N tot ,1  N 1G 2  F1G1G 2 kT 0 B F2  1
Ftot  F1 
N tot ,2  ( F2  1 )G 2 kT 0 B G1

F 2  1 F3  1 F4  1
Ftot  F1    
G1 G1G 2 G1G 2G 3
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