Flow Measurement

Presented By
Alpa Thakkar
COMMONLY USED FLOW
DEVICES
Differential Pressure (Head) Type
 Orifice Plate - Concentric, Eccentric, Segmental, Quadrant Edge, Integral, Conditioning
 Venturi Tube
 Flow Nozzles
 Elbow
 Pitot Tube, Averaging Pitot Tube (Annubar)
 Variable Area (Rotameter)
 Wedge Meter
 V-Cone
Mass Type – measures the mass flow rate directly.
 Coriolis
 Thermal
Velocity Type
 Magnetic
 Ultrasonic - Transit Time, Doppler
 Turbine
 Vortex
Open Channel Type
 Weir
 Parshall Flume
Other Types
 Positive Displacement
 Target

2#
 FLOW MEASUREMENT - TERMS
 DENSITY (r)
 A Measure Of Mass Per Unit Of Volume (lb/ft3 or kg/M3).
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 The Ratio Of The Density Of A Material To The Density Of Water Or Air
Depending On Whether It Is A Liquid Or A Gas.
 COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
 Fluids (Such As Gasses) Where The Volume Changes With Respect To
Changes In The Pressure. These Fluids Experience Large Changes In
Density Due To Changes In Pressure.
 NON-COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
 Fluids (Generally Liquids) Which Resist Changes In Volume As The
Pressure Changes. These Fluids Experience Little Change In Density Due
3# To Pressure Changes.
FLOW MEASUREMENT - TERMS

 Linear
 Transmitter output is directly proportional to the flow input.

 Square Root
 Flow is proportional to the square root of the measured value.

 Beta Ratio (d/D)

 Ratio of a differential pressure flow device bore (d) divided by internal diameter of pipe (D).
 A higher Beta ratio means a larger orifice size. A larger orifice plate bore size means greater
flow capacity and a lower permanent pressure loss.

 Pressure Head
 The Pressure At A Given Point In A Liquid Measured In Terms Of The Vertical Height Of A
Column Of The Liquid Needed To Produce The Same Pressure.

4#
FLOW MEASUREMENT - UNITS

 Flow is measured as a quantity (either volume or mass)

per unit time
 Volumetric units
 Liquid
 gpm, bbl/day, m3/hr, liters/min, etc.
 Gas or Vapor
 ft3/hr, m3/hr, etc.
 Mass units (either liquid, gas or vapor)
 lb/hr, kg/hr, etc.

 Flow can be measured in accumulated (totalized) total

amounts for a time period
 gallons, liters, meters passed in a day, etc.

5#
 LAMINAR FLOW
 Laminar Flow - Is Characterized By Concentric Layers Of Fluid Moving
In Parallel Down The Length Of A Pipe. The Highest Velocity (Vmax) Is
Found In The Center Of The Pipe. The Lowest Velocity (V=0) Is Found
Along The Pipe Wall.

SIDE VIEW END VIEW

VMAX

PARABOLIC FLOW PROFILE CONCENTRIC FLUID LAYERS

6#
 TURBULENT FLOW
 Turbulent Flow - Is Characterized By A Fluid Motion That Has Local
Velocities And Pressures That Fluctuate Randomly. This Causes The Velocity
Of The Fluid In The Pipe To Be More Uniform Across A Cross Section.

SIDE VIEW

VMAX ~ VAVG

7#
 REYNOLDS NUMBER
 The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces (velocity and density that keep
the fluid in motion) to viscous forces (frictional forces that slow the fluid down) and is
used for determining the dynamic properties of the fluid to allow an equal
comparison between different fluids and flows.
 Laminar Flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are
dominant, and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion
 Turbulent Flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial
forces, producing random eddies, vortices and other flow fluctuations.
 The Reynolds number is the most important value used in fluid dymanics as it
provides a criterion for determining similarity between different fluids,
flowrates and piping configurations.

8#
 REYNOLDS NUMBER
Dvr
Re = m C
D = DIAMETER (FT)
v = VELOCITY (FT/SEC)
r = DENSITY (LB/FT3)
m = VISCOSITY (cp)
C = CONSTANT (6.72X10-4 LB/FT SEC cp)
0 2000 4000

LAMINAR TRANSITION TURBULENT

9#
 IDEAL GAS LAW
An Ideal Gas or perfect gas is a hypothetical gas consisting of
identical particles with no intermolecular forces. Additionally, the
constituent atoms or molecules undergo perfectly elastic collisions
with the walls of the container. Real gases act like ideal gases at low
pressures and high temperatures.
Real Gases do not exhibit these exact properties, although the
approximation is often good enough to describe real gases. The
properties of real gases are influenced by compressibility and other
thermodynamic effects.

10#
 IDEAL GAS LAW
PV = nRT
Where: P = Pressure (psia)
V = Volume (FT3)
n = Number of Moles of Gas
(1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 molecules)
R = Gas Constant (10.73 FT3 PSIA / lb-mole oR)
T = Temperature (oR)

11#
 REAL GASES
 Compressibility Factor (Z) - The term "compressibility" is
used to describe the deviance in the thermodynamic
properties of a real gas from those expected from an ideal
gas.

 Real Gas Behavior can be calculated as:

PV = nZRT

12#
 STANDARD CONDITIONS
 P = 14.7 PSIA
 T = 520 deg R (60 deg F)
 Behavior of gases in a process can be equally compared by
using standard conditions – This is due to the nature of gases.

13#
 ACTUAL CONDITIONS
 Standard conditions can be converted to Actual Conditions using the Ideal Gas
Law.

PSVS = nRTS PAVA = nRTA

PAVA PSVS
=
TA TS
PSTA
VA = VS
PATS
14#
 BERNOULLI’S LAW
 Bernoulli's Law Describes The Behavior Of An
Ideal Fluid Under Varying Conditions In A Closed
System. It States That The Overall Energy Of The
Fluid As It Enters The System Is Equal To The
Overall Energy As It Leaves.
PE1 + KE1 = PE2 + KE2
PE = Potential Energy
KE = Kinetic Energy

15#
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
 Bernoulli’s Law Is Described By The Following
Equation For An Ideal Fluid.
Energy Per Unit Volume Before = Energy Per Unit Volume After
1 1
P1 +
2
r V12 + r gh1 = P2 + 2
r V22 + r gh2
Kinetic Potential
V1, P1 Pressure
Energy
Energy
Per Unit
Energy
Per unit
Volume Volume

V2, P2
V2 > V1
P2 < P1

Increased Fluid Speed

16# Decrease Fluid Pressure
 HEAD METER THEORY OF OPERATION

Beta Ratio b = d/D Should Be 0.3 – 0.75

Meter Run – Dependent On Piping
Normally 20 Diameters Upstream & 5 Diameters Downstream
17#
dP METER – FLOW PRINCIPLES

Flow is measured by creating a pressure drop and applying the flow equation below.

Basic Flow Equation for single phase compressible and non-compressible fluids:

qm = Flow
C = Constant
e = Expansion Factor
a = Orifice Area
Dp = P1 - P2
r1 = Density
b=d/D
d = Diameter of Orifice
D = Diameter of Pipe
18#
 METER RANGEABILITY
The square root function’s impact on a differential pressure device limits
the measurement turndown (rangeability) to between 4:1 and 6:1.
100
90
METER RANGEABILITY
% MAXIMUM METER HEAD

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
NORMAL
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
RANGE

19#
% MAXIMUM FLOW RATE
ORIFICE PLATE
A simple device, considered a precision
instrument. It is simply a piece of flat metal with a
flow-restricting bore that is inserted into the pipe
between flanges. The orifice meter is well
understood, rugged and inexpensive. It’s accuracy
under ideal conditions is in the range of 0.75-1.5%.
It can be sensitive to a variety of error-inducing
conditions, such as if the plate is eroded or
damaged.

Orifice Plate
20# Orifice Flanges
CONCENTRIC ORIFICE PLATE

The most common orifice plate is the

square-edged concentric bored orifice
plate. The concentric bored orifice plate
is the dominant design because of its
proven reliability in a variety of
applications and the extensive amount
of research conducted on this design. It
is easily reproduced at a relatively low
cost. It is used to measure a wide variety
of single phase, liquid and gas products,
typically in conjunction with flange
taps.

21#
22#
ECCENTRIC ORIFICE PLATE

Eccentrically bored plates are plates with the orifice off center, or eccentric,
as opposed to concentric. This type of plate is most commonly used to
measure fluids which carry a small amount of non-abrasive solids, or gases
with small amounts of liquid, since with the opening at the bottom of the pipe,
the solids and liquids will carry through, rather than collect at the orifice
plate. A higher degree of uncertainty as compared to the concentric orifice.
Eccentric orifice plates are used in many industries including heavy and light
chemicals and petrochemicals.

23#
 VENT AND WEEP HOLES
There are times when a gas may be have a
small amount of liquid or a liquid may have a
small amount of gas but not enough in either
case to warrant the use of an eccentric orifice.
In these casesVENT
it is best to simply add a small
hole near the edge of the plate, flush with the
inside diameter of the pipe, allowing undesired
substances to pass through the plate rather than
collect on the upstream side. If such a hole is
oriented upward to pass vapor bubbles, it is
called a vent DRAIN
hole. If the hole is oriented
downward to pass liquid droplets, it is called a
drain hole.
24#
ORIFICE PLATE TAP LOCATIONS

 Differential pressure is measured through pressure taps located on each side of the orifice
plate. Pressure taps can be positioned at a variety of different locations.
 Flange Taps
 Corner Taps
 Radius Taps
 Vena-Contracta Taps
 Pipe Taps

Orifice taps in horizontal

lines should be as follows:

25# Gas Liquid or Steam

 VENTURI TUBE

In a Venturi tube, the fluid is accelerated through a converging

cone, inducing a local pressure drop. An expanding section of the
meter then returns the flow to near its original pressure. These
instruments are often selected where it is important not to create a
significant pressure drop and where good accuracy is required.
• Used when higher velocity and pressure recovery is required.
• May be used when a small, constant percentage of solids is
present.

26#
 Flow tube and venturi flow meter

27#
FLOW NOZZLE

 DP Type Flowmeter
 Used when higher velocity & pressure recovery are required
 Better suited for gas service than for liquid

28#
 Flow
Nozzle

29#
WEDGE METER

Wedge flow meters can be used on just about any liquid or gas, just like
orifice plates. However they are generally chosen for dirty service
applications, or high viscosity applications such as slurry or heavy oil, or
where solids are present. For regular service applications consider other
types of meters first unless wedge meters are specified by customer as
preferred.
Since they are a differential pressure device their sizing calculation is
similar to that of other dP flowmeters.
Seal pots

P1 HP LP
Seal fluid

Q
D Transmitter

P2
30#
H
V-CONE

The V-Cone is similar to other differential pressure (Dp) meters in the

equations of flow that it uses. V-Cone geometry, however, is quite different
from traditional Dp meters. The V-Cone constricts the flow by positioning a
cone in the center of the pipe. This forces the flow in the center of the pipe
to flow around the cone. V-cones can be used with viscous fluids and
require little straight run.

31#
 Multivariable Pressure Transmitter
• A Multivariable pressure
transmitter provides gauge
pressure, differential
pressure, and temperature
measurement in a single
instrument.
• Uses Smart digital HART
communications for multiple
measurements.
• Minimizes the number of
transmitters and process
connections

32#
PITOT TUBE

In a pitot tube (insertion DP meter), a probe

consisting of two parts senses two
pressures: impact (dynamic) and static. The
impact pressure is sensed by one impact
tube bent toward the flow (dynamic head).
The averaging-type pitot tube has four or
more pressure taps located at
mathematically defined locations, averaging
the velocity profile across the pipe or flow
area, to measure the dynamic pressure.
The static pressure is sensed through a
small hole on the side (static head). They
develop low differential pressure and like all
head meters they use a differential
pressure transmitter to convert the flow to
an electrical transmission signal.

33#
PITOT TUBE FLOW PRINCIPLES

Pitot tubes make use of dynamic pressure difference. Orifices in the leading face
register total head pressure, dynamic + static, while the hole in the trailing face
only conveys static pressure. Pressure difference between the two gives dynamic
pressure in pipe, from which flow can be calculated.
Basic Mass rate of flow equation for single phase compressible and non-
compressible fluids:

34#
DP METER CHARACTERISTICS

 Recommended Service: Clean & Dirty Liquids, Gases,

Some Slurries
 Rangeability: 3:1 to 6:1
 Maximum Flow: 95% of Range
 Pressure Loss: 20 to 60% of Measured Head
 Accuracy: 0.5 to 4%
 Straight Run Req’d: 5 - 40D Upstream, 2-5D Downstream
 Viscosity Effect: High
 Size: 2” to 24”
 Connection: Dependent on meter type
 Type of Output: Square Root

35#
VARIABLE AREA FLOWMETER (ROTAMETER)
FLOW PRINCIPLES

Rotameters are a variable area device. The float

moves up and down in proportion to the fluid flow
rate and the annular area between the float and the
tube wall. As the float rises, the size of the annular
opening increases. As this area increases, the
differential pressure across the float decreases. The
float reaches a stable position when the upward
force exerted by the flowing fluid equals the weight
of the float. Every float position corresponds to a
particular flow rate for a particular fluid's density
and viscosity. For this reason, it is necessary to size
the rotameter for each application. When sized
correctly, the flow rate can be determined by
matching the float position to a calibrated scale on
the outside of the rotameter. Many rotameters come
with a built-in valve for adjusting flow manually.

36#
VARIABLE AREA (ROTAMETER)
CHARACTERISTICS

 Recommended Service: Clean, Dirty &

Viscous Liquids
 Rangeability: 10 to 1
 Pressure Loss: Medium
 Accuracy: 1 to 10%
 Straight Run Required: None
 Viscosity Effect: Medium
 Relative Cost: Low
 Sizes: <= 4”
 Connections: Threaded or Flanged
 Type of Output: Linear

37#
CORIOLIS

Direct mass flow measurement is

generally chosen for more critical
control applications such as the
blending of feedstocks or the
custody transfer of valuable fluids.
Generally chosen for high
rangeability and mass flow
applications, Coriolis technology is
unaffected by changes in
temperature, density, viscosity and
conductivity. In most flow meters
changes in these conditions require
monitoring and correction.

38#
CORIOLIS
FLOW PRINCIPLES

When the fluid is flowing, it is led through two

parallel tubes. An actuator (not shown) induces a
vibration of the tubes. The two parallel tubes are
counter-vibrating, to make the measuring device
less sensitive to outside vibrations. The actual
frequency of the vibration depends on the size of
the mass flow meter, and ranges from 80 to 1000
vibrations per second.
When no fluid is flowing, the vibration of the two
tubes is symmetrical.

Flow is measured by using velocity sensors to detect the twist in the tube
and transmit electrical signals having a relative phase shift that is
proportional to mass flow.
Coriolis meters also measure density, whereby the resonant frequency of
the forced rotation is a function of fluid density.
39#
CORIOLIS CHARACTERISTICS

 Recommended Service: Clean, Dirty & Viscous Liquids, Gases, Some Slurries
 Rangeability: 10 to 1
 Pressure Loss: Medium to High
 Accuracy: to 0.1% in liquids & to 0.35% in gas
 Straight Run Required: None
 Viscosity Effect: None
 Relative Cost: High
 Sizes: > ½”
 Connections: Flanged & Clamp-on Design
 Type of Output: Linear

40#
THERMAL MASS FLOWMETER
FLOW PRINCIPLES

Thermal mass flow meters introduce heat into the flow stream and measure how much
heat dissipates using one or more temperature sensors. This method works best with
gas mass flow measurement.
The constant temperature differential method have a heated sensor and another
sensor that measures the temperature of the gas. Mass flow rate is computed based
on the amount of electrical power required to maintain a constant difference in
temperature between the two temperature sensors.
In the constant current method the power to the heated sensor is kept constant. Mass
flow is measured as a function of the difference between the temperature of the heated
sensor and the temperature of the flow stream.

Both methods are based on the principle that higher

velocity flows result in a greater cooling effect. Both
measure mass flow based on the measured effects
of cooling in the flow stream.

41#
THERMAL MASS FLOWMETER
CHARACTERISTICS

 Recommended Service: Clean, Dirty & Viscous Liquids, Some Slurries,

Gases
 Rangeability: 10 to 1
 Pressure Loss: Low
 Accuracy: 1%
 Straight Run Required: None
 Viscosity Effect: None
 Relative Cost: High
 Sizes: 2” to 24”
 Connections: Threaded, Flanged
 Type of Output: Exponential

42#
MAGNETIC FLOWMETER
FLOW PRINCIPLES
A magnetic flow meter (mag flowmeter) is a volumetric flow meter which does not have any
moving parts and is ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which is conductive
or water based. Magnetic flowmeters will generally not work with hydrocarbons, distilled
water and many non-aqueous solutions). Magnetic flowmeters are also ideal for applications
where low pressure drop and low maintenance are required.

The operation of a magnetic flowmeter or mag meter is based upon Faraday's Law, which
states that the voltage induced across any conductor as it moves at right angles through a
magnetic field is proportional to the velocity of that conductor.

43#
MAGNETIC FLOWMETER
CHARACTERISTICS

 Recommended Service: Clean, Dirty & Viscous Conductive Liquids &

Slurries
 Rangeability: 40 to 1
 Pressure Loss: None
 Accuracy: 0.5%
 Straight Run Required: 5D Upstream, 2D Downstream
 Viscosity Effect: None
 Relative Cost: High
 Sizes: 1” to 120”
 Connections: Flanged
 Type of Output: Linear

44#
 Magnetic flow meter
 ADVANTAGES

 No Moving Parts

 Very Wide Rangeability

 Ideal For Slurries

 Unobstructed Flow Path

 DISADVANTAGES

 Liquid Must Be Conductive

 Physical Pressure and Temperature Limits

45#
ULTRASONIC METER

Transit time ultrasonic meters employ two transducers located upstream

and downstream of each other. Each transmits a sound wave to the other,
and the time difference between the receipt of the two signals indicates the
fluid velocity. Transit time meters usually require clean fluids and are used
where high rangeability is required. Accuracy is within 1% for ideal
applications.

46#
ULTRASONIC METER FLOW PRINCIPLES

B
Transmitter/ Flow is measured by
FLOW
t dn Receiver (T/R) measuring the difference
t up
Frequency pulse in transit time for two
ultrasonic beams
Transit length L A transmitted in a fluid
Transit time difference is proportional both upstream and
to mean velocity Vm, therefore Vm downstream.
can be calculated as follows:
Ultrasonic Meters are
Vm = (L / 2 * cos ) * [(TAB – TBA) / (TAB . TBA)] mainly used on large
size lines where high
Basic Flow Equation: Q = A * V rangeability is required.

47#
ULTRASONIC (DOPPLER)
FLOW PRINCIPLES

 Ultrasonic flowmeters are ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty

liquid which is conductive or water based.
The basic principle of operation employs the frequency shift (Doppler Effect)
of an ultrasonic signal when it is reflected by suspended particles or gas
bubbles (discontinuities) in motion. Current technology requires that the liquid
contain at least 100 parts per million (PPM) of 100 micron or larger
suspended particles or bubbles.

48#
Doppler
Flowmeter

49#
ULTRASONIC CHARACTERISTICS

 Recommended Service: Clean & Viscous Liquids, Natural/Flare Gas

 Rangeability: 20 to 1
 Pressure Loss: None
 Accuracy: 0.25% to 5%
 Straight Run Required: 5 to 30D Upstream
 Viscosity Effect: None
 Relative Cost: High
 Sizes: > ½”
 Connections: Flanged & Clamp-on Design
 Type of Output: Linear

50#
TURBINE METER

Turbine meter is kept in rotation by the

linear velocity of the stream in which it
is immersed. The number of
revolutions the device makes is
proportional to the rate of flow.

51#
TURBINE METER
CHARACTERISTICS

 Recommended Service: Clean & Viscous Liquids, Clean Gases

 Rangeability: 20 to 1
 Pressure Loss: High
 Accuracy: 0.25%
 Straight Run Required: 5 to 10D Upstream
 Viscosity Effect: High
 Relative Cost: High
 Sizes: > ¼”
 Connections: Flanged
 Type of Output: Linear

52#
 Turbine flow meter
 ADVANTAGES

 High Accuracy

 Suitable for Extreme Temperatures and Pressures

 Can Be Used On Gas or Liquid

 DISADVANTAGES

 Only For Low Viscosities

 Moving Parts

 Sensitive to Flow Profile

53#
VORTEX METER

Vortex meters can be used on most clean

liquid, vapor or gas. However, they are
generally chosen for applications where
high flow rangeability is required. Due to
break down of vortices at low flow rates,
vortex meters will cut off at a low flow limit.
Reverse flow measurement is not an
option. For regular service applications
this meter is the meter of choice by many
end users.

54#
VORTEX METER
FLOW PRINCIPLES

Basic Flow Equation: Q = A * V

Flowing Velocity of Fluid: V = (f * d) / St

f = Shedding Frequency
d = Diameter of Bluff Body
St = Stouhal Number (Ratio between Bluff Body Diameter and Vortex Interval)
A = Area of Pipe
55#
 Vortex flow meter

56#
 VORTEX / SWIRLMETER
 ADVANTAGES

 No Moving Parts

 For Liquid, Gas, or Steam

 Uneffected by Pressure, Temperature, or Density Changes.

 Wide Rangeability

 DISADVANTAGES

 Span Limitations Due to Viscosity

 Flow Profile Sensitive (Vortex)

57#
VORTEX CHARACTERISTICS

 Recommended Service: Clean & Dirty Liquids, Gases

 Rangeability: 10 to 1
 Pressure Loss: Medium
 Accuracy: 1%
 Straight Run Required: 10 to 20D Upstream, 5D Downstream
 Viscosity Effect: Medium
 Relative Cost: Medium
 Size: ½” to 12”
 Connection: Flanged
 Type of Output: Linear

58#
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT (PD) FLOWMETER

PD meters measure flow rate directly by dividing a stream into

distinct segments of known volume, counting segments, and
multiplying by the volume of each segment. Measured over a
specific period, the result is a value expressed in units of
volume per unit of time. PD meters frequently report total flow
directly on a counter, but they can also generate output pulses
with each pulse representing a discrete volume of fluid.

59#
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT (PD) FLOWMETER
FLOW PRINCIPLES

PD meters have 3 parts:

• Body
• Measuring Unit
• Counter Drive Train

Liquids inlet Liquid enters the cavity Quantity of liquid has

pressure exerts a between oval gear B again filled the cavity
pressure differential and meter body wall, between oval gear B and
against the lower while an equal volume meter body. This pattern is
face of oval gear A, of liquid passes out of repeated moving four
causing the two the cavity between oval times the liquid capacity of
interlocked oval gear A and meter body each cavity with each
gears to rotate to wall. Meanwhile, inlet revolution of the rotating
position 2. pressure continues to gears. Therefore, the flow
force the two oval rate is proportional to the
gears to rotate to rotational speed of the
60#
position 3 gears.
 Positive Displacement Meter

 Typical Principle of Operation

Schematic of a
Schematic of a
rotary-vane Schematic of a
nutating-disk
flowmeter lobed-impeller
meter
flowmeter
61#
 PD Flowmeters

 Advantages

 Ideal for viscous fluids

 Custody transfer
 Batching
 Minimal straight piping
requirements

62#
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT (PD)
CHARACTERISTICS

 Recommended Service: Clean & Viscous Liquids, Clean Gases

 Rangeability: 10 to 1
 Pressure Loss: High
 Accuracy: 0.5%
 Straight Run Required: None
 Viscosity Effect: High
 Relative Cost: Medium
 Sizes: >12”
 Connections: Flanged
 Type of Output: Linear

63#
 Variable area Flow meter

64#
  There are five primary elements to a variable area flow meter (rotameter):

Metering tube – a tapered chamber that contains the fluid and the float
 Float – a spherical or symmetrically shaped object that moves up or down
based on flow rate
 Scale – a device marked with increments of the flow units used to read the
flow rate
 Some types have a guide rod to keep float stable
 Process connections (end fittings) – the flanged or threaded assembly that
the customer uses to connect the process fluid lines – along with meter size,
this is very important to the customer
 Body or housing – the frame or structure that contains the metering tube,
float, scale and customer connections

65#
  A variable area meter (rotameter) is a flow meter that measures volumetric
flow of liquids and gases
 .Its operation is based on the variable area principle, where flow raises a float in
a tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid flow.
 The float will reach a stable position when the force exerted by the flowing
fluid + the buoyancy equals the gravitational force.

A change in flow rate upsets this force balance and the float will move up or
down until it again reaches a position where the forces are in balance.
 The pressure drop across the float is low and remains essentially constant as the
flow rate changes.

66#
  Float response to flow rate changes is linear and usually a 10
to 1 flow range is standard.
 Variable area meters can be installed directly after pipe
fittings or valves without adverse effects on the meter
accuracy.
 The meters are also inherently self-cleaning since the flow of
gas or liquid between the tube wall and the float provides a
scouring action that discourages the build-up of foreign
matter.
 The forces or influences involved in the rotameter can be
seen in the diagram below.
67#
68#
  Application Cautions for Variable Area Flowmeters

 Do not apply variable area flowmeters to fluids that are

opaque, dirty, or prone to coat the metering tube or float,
because these may render the flowmeter inoperable.
 Be sure to install variable area flowmeters with floats in the
vertical orientation because their operation is dependent
upon gravity.
 Variable area flowmeters that require upward flow may not
suitable in many applications where the fluid flows using only
gravity.
69#
  A potential safety hazard can be created if a glass metering
tube breaks, especially when dangerous fluids are present in
the flowmeter.
 Be careful to install variable area flowmeters with glass
metering tubes in locations where the glass cannot be
damaged.
 Also, the float can get stuck when flow turns on suddenly or
when high flow rates cause the float to be reach its highest
mechanical position.

70#
71#