Anderson’s theory of faulting

Goals: 1) To understand Anderson’s theory

of faulting and its implications. 2) To outline
some obvious exceptions to Anderson’s
theory and some possible explanations for
how these exceptions work.
 Primary assumptions
1. Surface of the earth is not confined, and
not acted on by shear stresses.
2. Homogenous rocks
3. Coulomb behavior
• Also, tectonic plates move parallel with
Earth’s surface (unknown in 1951)
 Three possible stress
combinations
Free-boundary condition requires 2 of the 3
principal stresses to be parallel with the
surface of the earth
What are they?
What kind of faults would you expect at
each?
• σ1 horizontal, σ3 vertical — reverse faults
• σ1 vertical, σ3 horizontal — normal faults
• σ1 horizontal, σ3 horizontal — strike-slip
faults
Most rocks have an angle of internal friction ≈
30°
What dip angles does Anderson’s theory
predict for
– σ1 horizontal, σ3 vertical — reverse faults?
– σ1 vertical, σ3 horizontal — normal faults?
– σ1 horizontal, σ3 horizontal — strike-slip faults?
 Theoretically
• Reverse faults: should form at ~30° dip
• Normal faults: should form at ~60° dip
• Strike-slip faults: should form at ~90°
dip
Can you think
of any
exceptions??
 Common exceptions
• Thrust faults — mechanically unfavorable
• Low-angle normal faults — mechanically
very unfavorable
diagram from M.P. Searle
 Possible explanations
1. Elevated pore fluid pressure
2. Pre-existing weaknesses
3. Rolling-hinge model for low-angle normal
faults
1. Elevated pore fluid
pressure (Pf)
 High Pf can lower effective stress

σs

σ1eff σ1
σn
σ3eff σ3
 This can activate slip on a low-angle
fault
σs

σn
σ3eff σ1eff
 However, if cohesive strength is
sufficiently low...
σs

σn
σ3eff σ1eff
Pore-fluid-pressure mechanism requires low
σeff on fault, but high σeff in surrounding
rocks
 It also doesn’t work well for low-angle
normal faults
σs

σn
σ3eff σ1eff
 2. Pre-existing anisotropy
• Bedding
• Weak layer (salt, shale)
• Foliation
Donath (1961)
produced shear
fractures at very
low angles to σ1 in
anisotropic rock
3. Rolling-hinge model for
low-angle normal faults
Two models for crustal extension

Pure shear crustal

extension model

Simple shear
crustal extension
model
Cartoon cross
section illustrating
the rolling-hinge
model
 East Humboldt
Range

Ruby
Mountains
Geologic map of
the Ruby
Mountains and
East Humboldt
Range
Cross section of a
low-angle normal-
fault system
Cartoon cross
section illustrating
the rolling-hinge
model