Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
:
The Quantification of Private Events can
Help Move us Forward
Mark L. Sundberg
Based on a paper by:
Sundberg, C. T., Sundberg, M. L., & Michael, J. (under preparation)
Equivalence and Emerging Relations
• Sidman (1971)
• However, after 40 years of the accumulation of data consensus on the
relevant sources of control responsible for the emergence of new
behavioral relations remains elusive
• Dougher et al. (2014) open their Editorial introducing the recent
special issue of The Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
(JEAB) dedicated to stimulusstimulus relations with, “One of the
great challenges for a behavioral science is to provide an account of
emergent stimulusstimulus relations not explained by primary
stimulus generalization”
Equivalence and Emerging Relations
• Four similar, but clearly distinct, conceptual frameworks that strive
to provide an account of emergent stimulusstimulus relations:
• Sidman’s (1994) “Equivalence Theory”
• Hayes, BarnesHolmes, & Roach’s (2001) “Relational Frame
Theory (RFT)”
• Horne and Lowe’s (1996) “Naming Theory”
• Lowenkron’s (1998) “Joint Control”
Equivalence and Emerging Relations
• There are many elements and issues that could be raised regarding
the distinctions between these four alternative explanations
• But perhaps the most significant issue among them is the role that
overt and covert mediating behaviors may play in evoking the
target response (Horne & Lowe, 1996; Stromer, 1996)
• Common to use a MTS preparation with verbal participants
• Sidman/Hayes: direct effect of the manipulated contingencies
• Common not to mention covert VB, not to attempt to measure it, or to dismiss it
• Horne & Lowe/Lowenkron: verbal mediation, rule governed
• Focus on overt and covert mediating behavior as a source of control for emerging
relations
Explaining Emerging Behavioral Relations
• Horne & Lowe (1996) note that, “Verbally able subjects performing
on matchingtosample tasks often talk to themselves, sometimes
overtly but most of the time covertly about the task and how they
should perform on it” (p. 329)
• Stromer (1996) states “Horne and Lowe propose a ‘naming
hypothesis’ of stimulus class formation that is arguably a verbal
mediation account” (p. 250)
• Stewart, McElwee, & Ming (2013) reject naming and joint control
due to their focus on mediation. These authors state:
• “the fact that naming and joint control both require an additional
mediational process to explain derived stimulus relations in
comparison to RFT can be seen as a weakness of the former” (p. 143)
• Sidman also rejected naming and mediating behavior as playing a role
in equivalence (Sidman & Tailby, 1982; Sidman, et. al., 1986)
Explaining Emerging Behavioral Relations
• Discrepancy between those who easily demonstrate stimulus
equivalence, and those who don’t (JEAB’s Jan., 2014 special issue)
• Existing verbal repertoires, verbal mediators, and a participant’s
history seem relevant to outcomes
• The RFT and equivalence position reflects what Skinner (1974)
identified as “methodological behaviorism”
• The RFT and equivalence position both call for significant changes in
the basic concepts of behavior analysis
• For example, Hayes, BarnesHolmes, & Roche (2001) state that it “is
now time for behavior analysts to abandon many of the specific
theoretical formulations of [Skinner] in the domain of complex human
behavior … Many of the most prominent Skinnerian ideas about
human complexity must be put aside or modified virtually beyond
recognition” (p. xii)
Radical Behaviorism, Private Events
and Multiple Control
• “With respect to each individual…a small part of the universe is
private. We need not suppose that events which take place within an
organism’s skin have special properties for that reason. A private
event may be distinguished by its limited accessibility but not, so far
as we know, by any special structure or nature” (Skinner, 1953, p.
257, see also Skinner, 1945, 1974)
• “the problem of privacy cannot be fully solved by instrumental
invasion of the organism. No matter how clearly these internal events
may be exposed in the laboratory, the fact remains that in the normal
verbal episode they are quite private.” (Skinner, 1957, p. 130)
• Skinner suggests 4 ways a verbal community teaches its participants
to identify and talk about private events (public accompaniment,
collateral behavior, common properties, response reduction)
Radical Behaviorism, Private Events
and Multiple Control
• Part of the complexity of quantifying private events is that in addition
to their inaccessibility, they can take many forms (e.g., 1957, Ch. 19,
Thinking)
• verbal (e.g., echoic, tact, intraverbal, mand, autoclitic)
• nonverbal (e.g., covert images of places or movement)
• motivating operations (e.g., aversive stimuli, sleep deprivation)
• discriminative stimuli (e.g., self as a listener)
• consequences (e.g., automatic reinforcement and punishment)
• respondent relations (e.g., fear, anxiety)
• These variables usually do interact with each other and experimenter
manipulated variables in types of multiple control (Skinner, 1953,
1957; Michael, Palmer, & Sundberg, 2011)
Difficulties in Conducting Empirical
Research on Complex Behavior
• “The analysis of complex cases” (Skinner, 1953, Chapter 14)
• Skinner’s first detailed presentation of “multiple control”
• “Two facts emerge from our survey of the basic functional relations:
(1) the strength of a single response may be, and usually is, a function
of more than one variable and (2) a single variable usually affects
more than one response” (Skinner, 1957, p. 227)
• “when variables are combined in different ways…an important part of
(our) task is to show how (the) variables interact” (1953, p. 205)
• In addition to multiple control, Donahoe & Palmer (2004) identify
three general problems in the study of complex behavior
• 1) complex “behavior…varies from person to person” (p. 2)
• 2) “complex behavior…has its roots in the past, but knowledge of the
past is incomplete” (p. 2)
• 3) “much ongoing activity is inaccessible to an observer” (p. 2)
Towards Quantifying Private Events
• In an effort to encourage the empirical investigation of private events,
Palmer (2011, p. 203) suggested several indirect ways to quantify
private events. Some of Palmer’s suggestions, along with others are…
• Collateral behavior
• Motivating operations: Interrupted chain procedure (Hall & Sundberg, 1987)
• EO and AO manipulations (Shillingsburg, Bowen, Valentino, & Pierce, 2013)
• Interfering tasks
• Presession verbal training (Wulfert, Dougher, & Greenway, 1991)
• Invent novel topographies
• Making targeted textual stimuli unpronounceable (Mandell & Sheen, 1994)
• Comparisons that rhyme with the sample stimulus
• (Randell & Remington, 2006)
Towards Quantifying Private Events
• Blocking, conflicting, or confusing vocal stimuli
• Blocking covert selfrules (e.g., Taylor & O’Reilly, 1997)
• Talk aloud and exit interview procedures
• (Ericsson & Simon, 1984; Potter, Huber, & Michael, 1998)
• Overt mediators (e.g., echoic, vocal tacting, hand signs, arrows)
• (Lowenkron, 1984, 1988; Sundberg & Sundberg, 1990)
• The “silent dog” method
• (Hayes, et al, 1986; Arntzen & Halstadtro, 2009)
• Limitedhold contingencies
• (Holth & Arntzen, 2000)
Mediating Behaviors as Additional
(Multiple) Sources of Control
• Ferster and Skinner (1957) defined mediating behavior as “Behavior
occurring between two instances of a response being studied (or
between some other event and such instance) which is used by the
organism as a controlling stimulus in subsequent behavior” (p. 729)
• Sidman (1960) also discusses mediating behavior: “The subject will
often adopt a posture in which his whole body or part of it maintains a
constant position relative to the correct container…Such mediating
behavior may enable the subject to select the correct container
even after the lapse of a considerable amount of time” (Sidman, 1960,
p. 375)
• Mediating behavior can be overt, covert, verbal, or nonverbal
• Overt nonverbal mediating behavior was extensively studied in the
early behavioral literature (e.g., Blough, 1959; Eckerman, 1970;
Hodos, Ross, & Brady, 1962; Laties, Weiss, Clark, & Reynolds,
1965; Shimp & Moffitt, 1977; Wilson & Keller, 1953)
Empirical Research on
Mediating Behaviors
• For example, Blough (1959) showed that pigeons who emitted
differential chains of stereotypic behavior during two different delay
conditions demonstrated a higher frequency of correct responding
versus pigeons who did not engage in such behaviors
• Blough concluded that “behavior during the delay interval seemed to
determine the matching response” (p. 156)
• In addition, “incorrect responses typically followed the occurrences of
the ‘wrong’ chain” (p. 157)
• Overt mediating behaviors “themselves provided discriminative
stimuli for the matching response” (Blough, p. 157)
Precurrent Behaviors
• Skinner (1953) termed these mediating behaviors “precurrent
behaviors” (p. 76)
• He made the point that precurrent behaviors can produce response
products (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic), can be public or private,
verbal or nonverbal, and have multiple functions (e.g., SDs, MOs, Srs)
• For example, in his analysis of problemsolving behavior, Skinner
(1969) states “The question ‘Who is that behind you?’ poses a
problem….turning and looking are precurrent responses which
generate a discriminative stimulus required in order to emit a
particular name” (p. 142)
• For Skinner, the primary function of precurrent behavior was “mainly
to make subsequent behavior more effective” (1968, p. 124)
Precurrent Behaviors
• Parsons and colleagues (Parsons & Ferraro, 1977; Polson & Parsons,
1994; Parsons, Taylor, & Joyce, 1981) extended the basic animal
research on precurrent collateral behavior to humans
• For example, Parsons, et al (1981) showed that when 12 Kindergarten
children in an MTS preparation were required to emit a specific
collateral precurrent behavior they “rapidly learned the conditional
discrimination” (p. 259)
• When precurrent behavior was not available “Subjects…either failed
to acquire the discrimination or did so incrementally over a number of
sessions” (p. 60)
• When precurrent behavior was prevented “these subjects showed
marked decrements in matching” (p. 263)
Joint Control and Mediating
Behaviors
• Lowenkron (1984, 1988, 1989) conducted a series of experiments
where participants were taught overt responses capable of mediating
generalized delayed matching (rotating an arrow, hand signs, use of a
compass)
• It was demonstrated that generalized delayed matching was dependent
on these mediating responses
• Lowenkon suggested a type of multiple control termed “joint control”
is responsible
• Joint control occurs when two separate antecedents that evoke the
same response form occur simultaneously (e.g., a selfechoic and a
tact) and function as a discriminable event (a new SD) (Skinner, 1969)
Joint Control and Mediating
Behaviors
• For example, when looking for a gate at an airport one might first
look at the departure board and find the appropriate gate number (e.g.,
B85)
• The actual terminal and gate may be some distance away. A self
echoic prompt allows the traveler to retain the terminal and gate
number over time and distractions
• As the traveler passes by gates he overtly or covertly tacts the
numbers (“there is B81”) and continues on until his selfechoic
matches the response form produced by the tact of the numbers
• When the response product of the selfechoic matches the response
product of the tact, a new discriminable event occurs and it is this
new SD that evokes selection behavior (going to that gate)
Joint Control
Covert Consequence
Covert Overt Automatic
SR +
“There it
SD1/R1 SD2/R2 is!”
Self-Echoic
(Scanning)
“Gate B85”
Overt
Establishes SD3 Overt
Joint SΔ SΔ R3
Covert Control
Gate
(Selection)
B85
SD3/R1
Tact SD4 SΔ SΔ SΔ
Go to that gate
“Gate B85” SΔ SΔ SΔ
SelectionBased Verbal Behavior and
TopographyBased Verbal Behavior
Michael (1985) introduced the distinction between topography based
verbal behavior (TBVB) and stimulusselection based verbal behavior
(SSBVB)
In TBVB each verbal operant involves a unique response topography
(e.g., words, signs, spelling)
In SSBVB the response topography is the same (e.g., selection), but
what differs is the stimulus selected (e.g., PECS, icon selection, MTS)
Sundberg and Sundberg (1990) examined distinction between TBVB
and SSBVB with 4 lowverbal developmentally disabled adult
participants
Various arbitrary MTS relations were established between auditory
and visual stimuli with hand signs and with selection behavior
SelectionBased Verbal Behavior and
TopographyBased Verbal Behavior
• The results showed that only the participants who were trained with
the TBVB system demonstrated transitivity
• When TBVB conditions were changed to SSBVB conditions,
transitivity did not occur
• When SSBVB conditions were changed to TBVB conditions,
transitivity occurred
• These results were replicated and extended by Wraikat, Sundberg, and
Michael (1991)
• Reflecting on these data, and his own, Lowenkron (1991) suggested
the possibility that the stimulus selectionbased response (as in MTS)
“depended on mediation by a topographybased behavior” (p. 126)
Disrupting Mediation
• In Parsons, et al (1981) during the precurrent behavior prohibition
condition, “subjects showed marked decrements in matching” (p. 263)
• Lowenkron (2006) showed that performance decreased when either
the selfechoic or tact components of joint control were disrupted
• Gutierrez (2006) disrupted selfechoics by requiring the participants
sing “Happy Birthday” between the sample and comparison stimuli
and performance decreased
• DeGraaf & Schlinger (2013) also showed the negative effects of
disrupting the selfechoic (reciting the alphabet, counting)
• In addition, they demonstrated that a joint control procedure was more
efficient than a standard prompt and fade procedure in establishing
conditional discriminations
Current Study
• This study sought to identify the role of covert TB verbal mediation in
the acquisition of delayed arbitrary MTS with high verbal vs. low
verbal participants
• A procedure that was designed to disrupt covert tacts and thus prevent
the setup of joint control was examined
• The same procedure was used with high and lowverbal participants
• A standard arbitrary matchingtosample procedure was designed to
establish various relations between
• Nonsense words (e.g., “bibi,” “nadia,” “kayba,” “taida”)
• Visual symbols (e.g., boxes, shapes, lines)
• Odd objects (e.g., LEGO configurations)
• Hand signs (e.g., a fist, wiggle fingers)
Method
• Two groups of participants:
• 4 college students
• 4 adults with developmental disabilities and limited verbal skills
• Tasks were balanced in difficulty, measured by error rate
• Repeated acquisition design was used
Method
• There were four conditions:
• Auditoryvisual MTS with fixed position in the comparison array
• Auditoryvisual MTS with random position in the comparison array
A Sample Comparison Array for
College Students: Fixed
A Sample Comparison Array for
College Students: Random
A Sample Comparison Array for
Students with DD: Random
Verbal SD
Find “Bibi”
A Sample Comparison Array for
Students with DD: Random
Verbal SD
Find “Bibi”
Method
• There were four conditions:
• Auditoryvisual MTS with fixed position in the comparison array
• Auditoryvisual MTS with random position in the comparison array
• Auditoryvisual MTS with all comparison stimuli the same but in a
fixed position
A Sample Comparison Array for College
Students: Same Symbols, Position Fixed
Method
• There were four conditions:
• MTS with fixed position in the comparison array
• MTS with random position in the comparison array
• MTS with all comparison stimuli the same but in a fixed position
• Topographybased manual signs as tacts and intraverbals
• Followed by exit interviews and talk aloud procedures
*+,- . /0+123"4 /25"6 7879: 0; 712+9"6 /3+</9/273"
)!"
@+1?: ; "
(!"
B 7+1"C D; <7, ": E"F,,: , 3"
' !"
&! "
=/>7?"
%! "
$! "
#! "
!"
A: 1?/- : 13"
+, -. /01, 234"02"5677898"
*"
B0C8: "
)"
D, 2: 6> "
("
"A--6-4"
'"
; 8, 2"< => ?8-"6@
&"
%"
$"
#"
!"
562: 0. 624"
The Same Condition
• All comparison stimuli the same, but in fixed positions
• Participants with DD performed as well in the “same condition” as
they did in the “fixed condition”
>06?@+A01B7"C +BD"E - F- G8A4 - 1B0G"E +705+G+?- 7"
)!"
; 01. 84 "
(!"
/ - 01"2 34 5- 67"89": 66867"
' !"
&! "
%! " <+=1"
$! "
#! "
!"
#" $" %" &"
H81. +?817"
The Same Condition
• All comparison stimuli the same, but in fixed positions
• Participants with DD performed as well in the “same condition” as
they did in the “fixed condition”
• College students performed the worst in “same condition”
5/678*9/0:; "*0"<1==, 4, "
' $"
3/2 , "
' #"
' !"
> , /0"? @2 A, 6"1B"C6616; "
$"
#"
!"
'" #" (" $"
; 01. 84 "
(!"
/ - 01"2 34 5- 67"89": 66867"
' !"
&! "
%! " <+=1"
$! "
#! "
!"
#" $" %" &"
H81. +?817"
A Sample Comparison Array for College
Students: Same Symbols, Position Fixed
Exit Interview and Talk Aloud
• All college students interviewed (3) reported “developing strategies” to
find the correct comparison stimulus
• Strategies were very similar for all participants, also demonstrated in
novel talk aloud postexperiment rounds
• Basic strategy was to alter the spoken nonsense word to something more
familiar, and create a name for each of the symbols
• Then create a connection between the new word and the symbol
• Relation: “Bibi,” > square w/vertical and horizontal lines. One
participant reported that “Bibi” was (intraverbally) converted to “baby”
and the framed square was thought of (tacted) as a window, and the
(intraverbal) phrase “baby in the window” was used to “connect” the two
stimuli
Exit Interview and Talk Aloud
• Other examples:
• (“Biba,” > empty square) > Biba was converted to “Bebop” and
the square was thought of as a dance floor
• (“Luba” > empty square) > Luba was converted to “Love life”
then “my love life is empty”
• (“Quba” > square with a line though it) > Quba was converted to
“Club,” then the symbol was thought of as a stick
A Verbal Behavior Analysis of MTS with
Verbal Participants: Early Trials
Covert
Overt
“Bibi” Echoic/Intraverbal
“Baby”
Covert
Overt
Tact
“Window”
A Verbal Behavior Analysis of MTS with
Verbal Participants: Later Trials
Covert Covert
Overt
Sample SD1 R1/SD2 R2/SD3
Echoic/Intraverbal
“Bibi” Echoic/Intraverbal
“Bibi”
“Baby” “Baby in the
Window”
A Verbal Behavior Analysis of MTS with
Verbal Participants
Consequence
Covert Overt Consequence Points!
Automatic
R2/SD3 R3 SR +
Echoic/Intraverbal “Aha!”
(Scanning)
“Baby in the
Window” Overt
Establishes SD4 Overt
Joint SΔ SΔ SΔ R5
Covert Control Selection
SΔ SΔ
R4
Tact
SD5 SΔ SΔ SΔ
“Window” SΔ SΔ SΔ
A Sample Comparison Array for College
Students: Same Symbols, Position Fixed
Exit Interview and Talk Aloud
• All three participants reported that they could not use their covert
strategies in the “same phase” to find the correct comparison stimulus
and relied on repeated trials to learn the relations
What Happens in the “Same” Condition with
Verbal Participants?
Consequence
Covert
Overt Overt Consequence Points!
Automatic
R2/SD3 R1 SR +
Sample SD1
Echoic/Intraverbal “Aha!”
(Scanning)
“Bibi”
“Baby in the
Window” Overt
Establishes SD2 Overt
Joint SΔ SΔ SΔ R2
Covert
Control SΔ SΔ
Selection
R2
Tact
SD5 SΔ SΔ SΔ
“Window” SΔ SΔ SΔ
Conclusions
• Mediating covert verbal behavior (private events) can play a role in
complex MTS tasks with verbal participants
• But, mediating covert verbal behavior played no role with the low
verbal participants
• McIlvane (2014) noted, “For some years now, results of the work
with both nonhumans and nonverbal humans has begun to convince
me that the matchingtosample methodology that we all grew up with
professionally will be shown to be unacceptably inefficient for
answering certain types of questions” (p. 163)
• RFT, equivalence, naming, or joint control?
• The results from the current study support Lowenkron’s analysis of
joint control, which can provide a more finegrained analysis of
emerging relations than Horne & Lowe’s naming relation
• The removal of the tact component prevents the setup of joint control
Conclusions
• Results replicate and extend previous studies on disrupting joint
control (DeGraaf & Schlinger, 2013; Gutierrez, 2006; Lowenkron,
2006)
• The call by RFT supporters to abandoned Skinner’s analysis of
complex behavior and verbal behavior seems unwarranted
• Sidman’s suggestion that equivalence be considered a basic
behavioral process also seems unwarranted
• Emerging relations can be explained with existing behavioral
principles and concepts, thus, no need for any new principles
(equivalence), higher order concepts (naming), or reformulation of
behavior analysis as we know it (RFT)