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STATISTICAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING CENTER

J and S Building, 104 Kalayaan Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City

Training Course on Basic Research and


Technical Report Writing
June 28 to July 2, 2010

Sampling and Sampling Techniques

Prepared by:
Prof. Josefina V. Almeda
College Secretary
School of Statistics
University of the Philippines, Diliman
June 2010
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Scope of Notes:

 The course will be limited to one aspect of sampling, sampling


application in survey work.

 It will deal mainly with principles of sampling from the


common sense rather than the mathematical point of view,
although calculations cannot entirely be avoided.

 The emphasis will be the methods of sampling that can be used


under different conditions.

 The formulas will be presented without mathematical proof but


with information on how they should be used and illustrations
to be able to understand them

Statistical Research and Training Center Training Course on Basic Statistics for Research
August 24 - 28, 2009
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Sampling
 The process of choosing a sample of elements
from a total population of elements.
 The process of selecting a subset of a
population of items for the purpose of making
inferences about the whole population.
• (Arao, Rosalina R. et. al, 2010)

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Census vs Sample Survey

Census or Complete Enumeration


• the process of gathering information from every
unit in the population
Sample Survey
• the process of obtaining information from a
subset unit in the population

Statistical Research and Training Center Training Course on Basic Statistics for Research
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Reasons for using sample surveys5
rather than complete enumeration:

1. Sample survey is faster and cheaper.


2. Sample can yield more comprehensive
information.
3. Sampling is more accurate.
4. Makes larger and much more varied
populations because of savings time
and money.
(BU RDC)

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Two Types of Sample Surveys:

1. Descriptive
The main objective of a descriptive sample survey is simply
to obtain certain information about large population groups
like number of men and women who have finished college.
2. Analytical
Comparisons are made between subgroups of the population
to find out if there are differences that exist among them and
to form or verify hypotheses about the reasons for these
differences.

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Examples of Sample Surveys

 Quarterly Labor Force Survey


 Family Income and Expenditures Survey
 National Demographic and Health Survey

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Role of Sampling in Survey Work:

 The main purpose of conducting sample surveys is generally to


estimate certain population parameters

Examples: average income of families


average age of the population
participation rate of female workers in factories
most common occupation of employed persons
average production
fertility rate
infant mortality rate

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Role of Sampling in Survey Work:

 Information is obtained or desired from a sample of


statistical population, but inferences are required on
characteristics of the whole statistical population.

 A second possible purpose may be to test a statistical


hypothesis about the statistical population

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Roles of Sampling in Survey Work

Example: the hypothesis that at least 40% of the households


in Metro Manila have T.V. sets. To do this, a sample of
households in Metro Manila is selected and the proportion
of households possessing TV sets will be calculated.
 Appropriate statistical test will be used to prove whether the
hypothesis is supported by the survey findings.

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Sampling vs Nonsampling Errors

Sampling Error
• can be attributed directly to the fact that not all
the population units are observed
Nonsampling Error
• attributable to other factors
Sources of Nonsampling Errors
. deterioration of frame
. measurement errors
. Errors in editing, coding, and tabulating results
. response bias
. data collector’s bias
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Advantages of Sampling

1. Less expensive
 The use of sampling in the conduct of a survey is less
expensive compared with a complete coverage of the
population like a census when absolute precision is not
necessary.

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August 24 - 28, 2009
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Advantages of Sampling

2. Results are obtained faster with better quality of


data

 Enumeration of a sample rather than a census will


definitely save time in data gathering as well as
processing of data aside from saving money.

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Advantages of Sampling

3. Gather more detailed information


 When gathering very detailed data, it is
not feasible to consider them on a
complete enumeration basis except
through a sample.

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Advantages of Sampling

4. Establish time series


 Use of sampling in the establishment of time series data is
the most practical and least expensive way of obtaining data
promptly.

Examples of time series data: Consumer Price Index (CPI),


Labor Force statistics, and Family Income and Expenditures
statistics including poverty statistics.

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Advantages of Sampling

5. Use of sampling to control non-sampling errors


 A survey is a chain of operations that extends from data
collection to publication of survey results. Varying
degrees of control can be exerted on the quality of each
link in the chain.

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Definitions of Terms:

Example: In a certain community, an opinion poll was


conducted to determine public sentiment toward a bond
issue in an upcoming election. The objective of the survey
was to estimate the proportion of voters in the community
who favored the bond issue.
1. Element
- is an object on which a measurement is taken.

Example: In the given example, an element is a registered


voter in the community.

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Definitions of Terms:

2. Target Population
- the population about which information is desired.

Example: The target population in the given example is the


collection of voters in the community.

3. Sampled Population
- the population from which a sample is actually taken

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Definitions of Terms:

Notes about target and sampled population:

a) Ideally, the target and the sampled populations should be


the same collection of elements.

b) The target population is the collection under study, that is,


we wish to infer on the characteristics of this population.
However, if we cannot get a sample from this population
then get another similar population, which we call the
sampled population, from where we obtain the sample.

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Definitions of Terms:

4. Sampling Units
- are nonoverlapping collections of elements from the
population that cover the entire population

Example: In the bond issue example, a sampling unit may be


a registered voter in the community.

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Example of Elementary Unit
and Sampling Unit

Suppose we select our sample from a list of


registered voters then the sampling unit is a
registered voter, or the element in the study.
However, if we select our sample from a list of
families in the barangay then the sampling unit this
time is a family, which may consist of one or more
elements (registered voter) in the study.

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Definitions of Terms:

Notes on Sampling Units:


a) As the definition states, sampling units should be
nonoverlapping. However, situations do arise in which the
nonoverlapping condition is virtually impossible to achieve.
Example of overlapping sampling units: Field plot samples
taken, in studies of animal habitat are often circular. The circular
pattern is a convenient one to lay out and has advantages in terms of
the amount of walking necessary to study the plot. Obviously,
circular plots cannot cover a field without some overlap.

b) The intent here is to suggest that the overlap should be as small


as possible for efficient sampling.

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Definitions of Terms:

5. Sampling Frame
- is a list of sampling units
Example: If we specify the individual voter as the sampling unit, a
list of all registered voters may serve as a frame for a public
opinion poll.
Notes on the Frame:
a) The frame may not include all the elements in the population
because updating the list daily is impossible.

Example: If we take the household as the sampling unit, then a


telephone directory, a city directory, or a list of household heads
obtained from census data can serve as a frame.

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Definitions of Terms:

Types of Frames:
1. list frame
2. area frame
3. telephone numbers for telephone surveys

Inadequacies of Frames:
1. missing elements or noncoverage
2. duplicate listings

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Definitions of Terms:

Notes on the frame:


b) Some sampling schemes may involve multiple frames.
Examples of Multiple Frames:
1. In sampling voters, one could start by sampling housing units
or city blocks then sampling voters within the selected housing
units or blocks. One frame, then, is a list of housing units or a
list of city blocks, and the second frame is a list of voters
within those larger units. The second frame may not be
available until the housing units or blocks are selected and
studied in some detail.

2. Estimation of crop yields in a state may involve sampling from a


list of growers to be interviewed and a list of fields to be
objectively measured.
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August 24 - 28, 2009
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Definitions of Terms:

6. Sample
- is a collection of sampling units drawn from a frame or
frames.

Example: Sampling unit - individual voter


Frame - list of registered voters
Sample - number of voters in the
public opinion poll

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August 24 - 28, 2009
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Definitions of Terms:

7. Probability of Selection
- The probability of selection is the chance that each unit
in the population has of being included in the sample.
Probability values range from 0 to 1. Usually the
probability of selection is determined from the elements
of the sampling frame.

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2 Methods of Sampling

Probability Sampling
• procedure wherein every element of the population
is given a (known) nonzero chance of being
selected in the sample

Nonprobability Sampling
• procedure wherein not all the elements in the
population are given a chance of being included
in the sample

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August 24 - 28, 2009
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Types of Sampling Methods

Samples

Non-Probability Samples Probability Samples

Haphazard Systematic
Quota
Stratified
Convenience

Volunteer Cluster
Purposive
Simple Random

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Example: Phoned-in calls
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Methods of Nonprobability Sampling

 Probabilities of selection are not specified for the individual


units of the population in nonprobability sampling.

 The clear disadvantage of nonprobability sampling is that


the researcher cannot assert that the sample is representative
of the larger population because the probability that a person
or object will be chosen is not known.

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August 24 - 28, 2009
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Methods of Nonprobability Sampling

Purposive Sampling
 sets out to make the sample agree with the population in
regard to certain characteristics
Quota Sampling
 a specific number of particular types of elements are selected
Convenience Sampling
 chooses units which come to hand or are convenient
Judgment Sampling
 selects sample in accordance with an expert’s judgment

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Cases Wherein 32
Nonprobability Sampling is Useful
 Only few are willing to be interviewed

 Extreme difficulties in locating or identifying


subjects

 Probability sampling is more expensive to


implement

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Methods of Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling is a method of selecting a sample


wherein each unit in the population (for example, a
person) has a known non-zero probability of being
included in the sample. This probability is used in
computing estimates of population characteristics.

It specifies rules and procedures for both sample


selection and estimation. Used if the main objective of
the sample survey is making inferences about the
characteristics of the population under study.

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Probability vs. Non-Probability 34

Sampling
ISSUE: Which is “better”?

 There is no straightforward answer to resolve this issue


outright.

 Non-probability sampling may be “cheaper” to implement.

 It is only with probability sampling that one is able to


derive objective measures of “errors”.

 The strength of one method is the weakness of the other. However,


the cost of doing a survey can be minimized. With this, the use of
probability sampling is recommended.

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Methods of Probability Sampling

* Simple Random Sampling


* Stratified Sampling
* Systematic Sampling
* Cluster Sampling
* Multi-Stage Sampling

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Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
Description of the Design
Random sampling is the process of selecting a sample of size (n)
giving each sampling unit an equal chance of being included in
the sample. An SRS of n observations of the population is a
sample that is chosen in such a way that each subset of n
observations of the population has the same chance of being
selected.
Random sampling may be with replacement (SRSWR) or
Without replacement (SRSWOR). In SRSWR, a chosen
element is always replaced before the next selection is made, so
that an element may be chosen more than once.

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Sample Selection Procedure

1. Make a list of the sampling units and number them


from 1 to N, where N is the population size.
2. Select n (distinct for SRSWOR, not necessarily
distinct for SRSWR) random numbers from 1 to N
using some random process; for example, the table of
random numbers or lottery. The sample consists of
the units corresponding to the selected random
numbers.

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How To Use The Table of Random 38

Numbers:
The table of random numbers consists of the digits 0 through
9 generated by the computer using a random process and
recorded randomly in rows and columns. To use the table,
the researcher can start with any row and any column. We
list down the steps on how to use the Table of Random
Numbers:

1. Determine how many digits there are in the population size


N. Assume that there are M digits in N.
2. Using any m columns of the table, read the random numbers
down the column.
3. Choose the elements whose serial numbers are the same as
those of the random number read.

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How To Use The Table of Random 39

Numbers:
4. Ignore the random numbers greater than N, ignore also
those that have already been selected.
5. If the random number of the first m columns have been
exhausted, continue reading the next m columns. Stop
when n elements have been chosen.

Example: Let the size of the population of interest be 300


students (N = 300) and the size of the sample be 10 students
(n = 10). We list down the 300 students in a serial listing as
001, 002, 003, . . . , 300. Following the steps above, the
number of digits of the population size is 3 since N = 300.
:Let our starting point be the 3rd row and the 5th column of
the table of random numbers. We use m = 3 columns and
the columns will be 5, 6, and 7.
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How To Use The Table of Random 40

Numbers:
Starting with row 3, we then read down the table using
columns 5, 6, and 7. We get the following three-digit
numbers: 694, 016, 983, 940, 000, 848, 641, 176, 830, 374,
528, 092, 759, 036, 124, 214, 773, 129, 371, 438, 868, 003,
011, 670, 131

Numbers greater than 300 are discarded and we stop as soon


as we have obtained the sample size of n = 10. The 10
sampling units then are 016, 176, 092, 036, 124, 214, 129,
003, 011, and 131. The students corresponding to these
serial numbers comprise the sample. However, if we have a
population size of N = 10,000, the same steps will be
performed but this time the population list will consists of
serial numbers 00001, 00002, …, 10000. The number of
columns to be utilized will be 5 columns.

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Examples of Simple Random Sampling:

1. Employee records are recorded on their respective 201


file. The Personnel Manager has a list of all the
employees totaling to N = 15,000. If a sample size of n
= 75 employees is to be drawn, then the sample is
called a simple random sample if every possible sample
of n = 75 employees has the same chance of being
included in the sample.

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Examples of Simple Random Sampling

2. The Bureau of Internal Revenue Auditors may


study simple random samples of individual tax
payments to check for correctness of tax declared.
Thus they may wish to estimate the proportion of
tax payments not correctly filed by individual
taxpayers.

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Advantages
• The theory involved is much easier to understand
than the theory behind other sampling designs.
• Estimation methods are simple and easy.
Disadvantages
• The sample chosen may be widely spread, thus
entailing high transportation costs.
• A population list, or frame, is needed.
• The sample chosen may not be truly typical of the
population if the population is heterogenous with
respect to the characteristic under study

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Stratified Sampling
Description of the Design
There are cases wherein the population consists of items
which are heterogeneous with respect to the
characteristic under study. In such situations the
population should be divided, or stratified, into more or
less homogeneous subpopulations or strata before
sampling is done.

Stratified random sampling then consists of selecting an


SRS from each of the strata into which the population
has been divided.

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Sample Selection Procedure

1. Stratify the population into strata so that ideally


each stratum will consist of more or less
homogeneous units.

2. After the population has been stratified, an SRS is


selected from each stratum.

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Stratified Sampling 46

Example: If we are making a health study of male students in a


college, we might recognize such strata as
- those who do or do not live at home;
- those who are totally, partially or not at all self-supporting;
- those who do or do not take regular exercise;
- those who do or do not smoke; and so forth.

However, there are other strata, which clearly have no bearing on the
problem.

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Advantages
 Stratification may bring about a gain in
precision of the estimates of characteristics of
the population.
 It allows for more comprehensive data analysis
since information is provided for each stratum.
 It is administratively convenient.
Disadvantages
 A listing of the population for each stratum is
needed.
 The stratification of the population may require
additional prior information about the
population and its strata.
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(1-in-k) Systematic Sampling 48

Description of the Design


Systematic sampling with a random start is a
method of selecting a sample by taking every kth
unit from an ordered population, the first unit
being selected at random. Here k is called the
sampling interval and 1/k the sampling fraction.
Sample Selection Procedure
1. Number the units of the population consecutively
from 1 to N.
2. Determine k by the formula
k=N/n
= population size/sample size
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3. Select the random start r (between 1 and k). The unit


corresponding to r is the first unit of the sample.
4. The other units of the sample correspond to r + k,
r + 2k, ...
Example of Systematic Sampling
A medical investigator is interested in obtaining
information about the average number of times N =
15,000 specialists prescribed a certain drug in the previous
year. To obtain a sample of n = 1600 specialists, we could
select one specialist at random from the first k = 9 names
appearing on the list and then select every ninth name
thereafter until a sample of size 1600 is selected.
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Advantages

 Drawing of the sample is administratively easy.


 It is possible to select a sample in the field without a
frame.

Disadvantage

 If periodic regularities are found in the list, a systematic


sample may consist only of similar types.

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Cluster Sampling

Description of the Design


Cluster sampling is a method of selecting a sample of distinct
groups, or clusters, of smaller units called elements. The
sample clusters may be chosen by SRS or by systematic
sampling. Similar to strata in stratified sampling, clusters are
mutually exclusive subpopulations which together comprise
the entire population. Unlike strata, however, clusters are
preferably formed with heterogeneous elements so that each
cluster will be typical of the population.
The number of clusters C in the population is called the size
of the population of clusters. Clusters may be of equal or
unequal sizes.
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Sample Selection Procedure


1. List the clusters and number them from 1 to C.
2. Randomly select n numbers from 1 to C. The clusters
corresponding to the selected numbers form the sample of
clusters.
3. Observe all the elements in each sample cluster.

Example of Cluster Sampling


A forester wishes to estimate the average height of
coconut trees on a plantation. The plantation is
divided into 386 plots. An SRS of 20 is selected
and all trees on the sampled plots are measured.

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Advantages

 A population list of elements is not needed.


 Listing cost is reduced.

Disadvantages

 The costs and problems of statistical analysis are


greater.
 Estimation procedures are difficult.

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Multistage Sampling
Description of the Design
In multistage sampling the selection of the sample is
accomplished in two or more steps. The population
is first divided into a number of first-stage or
primary units, from which a sample is drawn.
Within the sampled first-stage units, a sample of
second-stage or secondary units is drawn. If desired,
one might add further stages, dividing the population
into a hierarchy of sampling units corresponding to
the different sampling stages.

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Example of Multi-stage Sampling

The following is one possible setup of nationwide


surveys.
Stage Sample

Primary Region

Secondary Province

Third-Stage Municipality/City

Fourth-Stage Barangay

Fifth-Stage Household
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Advantages

 Listing cost is reduced.


 Transportation cost is reduced.

Disadvantages

 Estimation procedures are difficult, especially when


the first-stage units are not of the same size.
 The sampling procedure entails much planning
before selection is done.

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Sampling Design

Determination of sample size involves answering a


series of questions on:
 precision or budget?
 margin of error that the researcher is willing to
accept
 probability that the desired margin of error is
achieved ( usually 90%, 95%, 99%)

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Determining the sample size
 Gay (1976) offers some minimum acceptable sizes
depending on the type of research:

 1. Descriptive Research - 10% - 20%


 2. Correlational Researh - 30 subjects
 3. Ex post facto Research - 15 subjects per group
 4. Experimental Research - 15 to 30 subj per grp

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 Fraenkel & Wallen (2007) recommended


minimum number of subjects:
 100 for a descriptive study,
 50 fro a correlational study, and
 30 in each group for experimental and causal-
comparative studies.

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The Slovin’s Formula

•n = N
1 + N e2

Where: N = the population size


e = the margin of error (usually 5%)
n = the sample size

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Example
 1. Find the sample size if the population size is
2500 at 95% accuracy.

 Ans: 344.85 or 345

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 2. A researcher is conducting an investigation


regarding the factors affecting the performance
of 200 teachers in the 1st district of Catarman,
N. Samar. If the margin of error is 3%, how
many of the teachers should be taken as
respondents?

 Ans: 169
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Which Sampling Plan to Use?

 When deciding which sampling plan to use, the investigator must


consider the efficiency of the scheme.
 It has already been noted that a stratified sample yields more
reliable results (that is, its sampling error is smaller) than does a
random sample of the same size.
 Cluster sampling may be expected to yield a less reliable result
than random sampling for random samples of the same size.
 The efficiency of a sample scheme refers to the reliability in
relation to unit cost.

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Which Sampling Plan to Use?

Example:

A geographic cluster sample with groups of units in, say


20 locations in a large city may have a lower cost per
sampling unit than a random sample of the same size with
the units scattered here and there about the city. The
difference in unit cost may be so great that the cluster
sample will yield more reliable results than could be had
from a random sample for the same expenditure.

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Margin of Error

 The “margin of error” is a common summary of sampling


error that quantifies uncertainty about a survey result.
 Estimate +/- margin of error  such intervals are sometimes
called 95% confidence intervals and would be expected to
contain the true value of the target quantity (in the absence of
nonsampling errors) at least 95% of the time.
 An important factor in determining the margin of error is the
size of the sample.
 Larger samples are more likely to yield results close to the
target population quantity thus have smaller margins of error
than more modest-sized samples.

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Example of Margin of Error


 In the case of the mayoral poll in which 55 of 100 sampled
individuals support Mr. Atienza, the sample estimate would be
that 55 percent support Mr. Atienza – however, there is a margin
of error of 10 percent. Therefore a 95 percent confidence
interval for the percentage supporting Mr. Atienza would be
(55%-10%) to (55% +10%)
or (45 percent, 65 percent), suggesting that in the broader
community the support for Mr. Atienza could plausibly range
from 45 percent to 65 percent.
 This implies – because of the small sample size – considerable
uncertainty about whether a majority of the people in the city
actually support Mr. Atienza.
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Example of Margin of Error

 However, if there had been a survey of 1,000 people,


550 of whom support Mr. Atienza, the sample estimate
would again be 55 percent, but now the margin of error
for Mr. Atienza’s support would only be about 3
percent. A 95 percent confidence interval for the
proportion supporting Mr. Atienza would thus be
(55%-3%) to (55%+3%)
or (52 percent, 58 percent), which provides much
greater assurance that a majority of the city’s voters
support Mr. Atienza.

Statistical Research and Training Center Training Course on Basic Statistics for Research
August 24 - 28, 2009
68
Workshop
 Evaluate the Sampling Design of the Data
Quality Study. Discuss as a group the merits of
the selected sampling design. Suggest another
sampling design that you think is appropriate.

Statistical Research and Training Center Training Course on Basic Statistics for Research
August 24 - 28, 2009
Exercises 69

1. Identify the sample selection procedure used in each of the following


cases:
a) A survey obtained a sample of laborers by first classifying the different
areas as either rural area or urban area. After which, a sample of
laborers is taken from each area.
b) To select a sample of households in a province, a sample of provinces
were selected, then a sample of municipalities were chosen from each
of the selected provinces, then a sample of barangays were chosen from
each of the selected municipality, and all households in the selected
barangays were included.
c) For a survey, a sample of municipalities were selected from every
province in the country and included all child laborers in the selected
municipalities.
d) In the game of lotto, 6 balls are selected from a container with 42 balls.
e) A car manufacturer conducts quality checking on every 20th car in the
production line.
Statistical Research and Training Center Training Course on Basic Statistics for Research
August 24 - 28, 2009
70
Exercises

2. Determine the sampling procedure to be used and explain


why. Determine the population under consideration and
the sampling unit.

a) a study is to be conducted to determine the


housing condition of foresters in Region IV.

b) The Head of the Development Academy of the


Philippines is interested in the employee’s
opinion on his administrative policies.

Statistical Research and Training Center Training Course on Basic Statistics for Research
August 24 - 28, 2009
71
Exercises

c) If you wanted to determine what proportion of novels


published in the Philippines last year had themes
based on sex or violence, how might you get a
random sample to answer your question?

Statistical Research and Training Center Training Course on Basic Statistics for Research
August 24 - 28, 2009
72
Exercises

4. Give at least one way of stratifying the following:


a) height of school children enrolled in an elementary
b) school production of logs in the Philippines
c) expenditure of household for food annual earnings of
U.P. graduates since 2005
d) radio listening habits of radio owners in the Manila
area

Statistical Research and Training Center Training Course on Basic Statistics for Research
August 24 - 28, 2009
STATISTICAL RESEARCH AND TRAINING CENTER
J and S Building, 104 Kalayaan Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City

Training Course on Basic Research and


Technical Report Writing
June 28 to July 2, 2010

Thank you.

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