ARL-410: Illumination

Sem.8, B. Arch. VNIT

S. RAJAGOPALAN Ph.D.

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 ILLUMINATION

• An important requirement in any facility

• Provides energy saving opportunities
• Changing scenarios
• 15% of the total electricity generation is used for
lighting purposes
• Electromagnetic radiation
• Visible spectrum is a part of a big scheme

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Electromagnetic Spectrum
• γ-rays (1 pM, 1.24 MeV,)
• Soft X-ray (1 nM, 1.2 KeV)
• Extreme UV (10 nM, 124 eV)
• Visible (300 nM to 700 nM, 1.24 eV to 12.4 eV)
• Microwaves (UHF, 1 dM, 12.4 μeV) VHF: 1M, 1.2 μeV
• Radio waves (0.1M to >1 M, 12.4 neV)
• Our voice (10M to 100M, 12.4 peV)

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Frequency wise where do we stand?
• Voice 104 Longitudinal and transverse
• Radio 106
• Microwave 1010
• Infra-red 1012
• Visible 105 (Violet 390 nm to Red 650 nm)
• UV 1015
• X-rays 1018
• γ- rays 1020

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Units of Lighting: Lumen: lm
• Luminous Flux or light output
• Unit Lumen: Flux at source

• Luminous intensity: quotient of luminous flux leaving the source in a

given direction divided by element of solid angle.
• Unit is Candela (cd)
• Solid angle ω = A/ r2
• Total solid angle ω around a point source
= 4πr2 / r2 = 4π steradian
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 Definitions
• Illuminance (light level): Unit lumens/unit area
• The S.I. unit is LUX.
• (Another old unit is foot-candle = 10.76 lux)
• Can be measured by a light meter.

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 Definitions
• Brightness (or Luminance)
• It is Candela per sq.m. Cd/m2

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Inverse Square Law
Illumination Intensity I produced by a point source decreases in inverse
proportion to the distance squared. Illum Int = I / d2

4πR2

*
d
2d
R 2R

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Cosine Law
• Illumination E = flux/area
• Decrease in E by cosϴ = (I/d2 )cosϴ
• EA = I /h2 ϴ
• EB = [I/OB2] cosϴ1 But cosϴ1 = h/OB O Int= I
= [I/OB2] h/OB x h2/h2
= [I/h2] h3 /OB3
EB = EA Cos3ϴ
Work
plane

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• Point by Point method calculating Illuminance E (light levels in Lux)
• Total E, due to different point sources located at various distances
from a horizontal plane making various angles, will be
• E = I1 /d12 + I2 cosϴ2/d22 + I3 ..…… (inverse sq. law, cosϴ rule)
• If there is a single source
• E = I/d2 (cos3ϴ1 + cos3ϴ2 + cos3ϴ3 +…….) (cos3ϴ rule)

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Numerical problem
• A lamp of 1500 cd is fixed above 2M above the centre of a circular
table of radius 1.5M. Illuminance at the table edge?
• d = 2.5M
• Cos ϴ = 2/2.5 E = [I/d2] cos ϴ
• [1500/6.25] 2/2.5 = 192 lm/m2 (Ans)

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Light calculation: Lumen method
• Flux originating at the device does not reach fully at the work plane.
Only a small amount reaches the work plane. Some go to walls, floor
areas, ceiling surface etc. Reflected components reach work plane.
These components depend on the luminaires and how well they are
maintained, and their condition.
• If the flux originating from one lamp is Ф, for ‘n’ no. of devices flux
will be normally nФ. But due to conditions mentioned, flux reaching
the work-plane will be lower. Actual illumination reaching the
surface:
E = nФ x coefficient of utilization CU x maintenance factor MF/Area
of the work surface

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• CU is = flux reaching surface/flux generated at sources. Varies 0 to 1
As good as 0.4-0.7 for direct light, 0.1-0.3 for indirect light. Also
depends on room dimensions.
• MF is = flux at actual condition / flux at full maintenance condition.

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Numerical problem
• Factory: 40M x 12M x 4M (ht), Requirement 500 lux on work plane
1M above floor level. 65 watts lamp of efficiency 80 lumens/watt
mounted on ceiling. CU is 0.46, MF is 0.7. Find the no. of lamps
required and their layout.
• E = nФ x coefficient of utilization CU x maintenance factor MF/Area
of the work surface
• n = E x A/[Ф x CU x MF] = 500 x (12x40) / (65x80) x 0.46 x 0.7
= 144 (Ans)

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Numerical problem
• Four lamps each of 200 cd suspended 9M above ground, placed at
the corners of side 12M. Calculated illuminance directly under each
lamp. B
A
A B C
θ

• Illum E due to A at its base 9

=200/92=2.47 lm/m2 12 C 12
12√2
o
tanΘ = 12/9; Θ=53 8’; cosΘ= 0.6
Illum due to B at base of A = [200/92] 0.63=0.53 lm/m2
Similarly due to D: 0.53. Now due to C: tanΘ = 12√2/9; Θ =62o4’
cosΘ= 0.4685. Illum = [200/92]x(0.4685)3 = 0.28 lm/m2
Total E at base of A= 2.47+0.53+0.53+0.28 = 3.81 lm/m2 (Ans)
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• COLOUR TEMPERATURE
• Different lamps emits different whiteness. This parameter is used to
describe this phenomenon. Expressed in Kelvin (K). This K has no
relationship with actual temperature of the lamp.
• But corresponds to the temperature of the black body radiator
emitting light of comparable colour. There is a relationship with the
LUX level being maintained.
• Low light levels & high colour temp: Cold and dim feelings
• High light levels & low colour temperature: Overly colourful (Kruith
effect)
• Light Sources looking good ,say, at 500 lux may not look nice at higher
illuminance. Hence the need for dimming of light levels.

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• Colour temperature of different lamps:

• Incandescent Lamps: 2700

• Fluorescent (warm white): 3000
• Fluorescent (cool white): 4000
• Daylight: 5000 and above

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• Colour Rendering Index: (CRI)
• On a scale of 0 to 100
• Ability of a light source to convey accurately a sample of standard
colours relative to a standard source (having excellent colour
rendering) and having the same colour temperature.
• So, CRI comparison only among lamps having nearly same colour
temperature

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• EFFICACY
• No source converts energy fully into light
• The amount of lumens that a lamp (and its ballast) produce from a
watt of power if efficacy.
• Eg: 100 watt lamp producing 1700 lumen has an efficacy of
1700/100= 17 lumens/watt.
• Luminous efficacy increases with lamp wattage (true for discharge
lamps)

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 Light Sources
• Incandescent lamps (filament heated & radiating): Edison 1879
• Tungsten-alloy filament in vacuum or inert gases/Halogens. These gases do not
interact with or corrode the filament.
• Tungsten withstands high temp. Heating due to resistance to electron flow.
• Higher temp gives continuous spectrum of visible radiation.
• High melting point, Low vapour pressure, Ductility, Strength
• Blackening due to slow evaporation. Hence loss of efficiency, lumens/watt
• Reflectors can be included, Many shapes & sizes, application of internal filter.

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• Inert-gas filled incandescent lamps: Halogen bulbs: 85% halogen,
Argon+Nitrogen 15%.
Coiled coil concept: supply of heat to neghbouring coil. Stronger coil,
long life, withstand high temp, higher efficiency.
Gases develop high pressures and temps. Instead of glass, quartz is
used. No deposition iodide/bromide on bulb internal surface
Suitable for out-door illumination, hoardings. 20-25 lm/W. Good full
spectrum light. Mostly in infra-red to higher wavelength visible
radiation. Can be used with dimmer.
Efficiency limited due to operating temp. White coating for diffusion
Can be used as a point source, for projectional cone
Infra-red (70%), heat (15%) and light. Higher temp can increase
efficiency, but such materials are not available normally.
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 Fluorescent Lamp
• NOT by incandescence. Fluorescence.
• Electrical discharge through gas/vapour
• Role of phosphor in conversion of UV (250 nm) to visible. Hg present.
• Heating of filament (thermionic emission) required till discharge
strikes (atomic excitation).
• Hence concept of a “starter”.
• Concept of “choke” (or ballast): for current control.
• “Quick/Instant Start”: Ballast itself provides “striking” voltage.
• Visible light part 25%. Less heating. Losses due to choke.

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 CFL: Compact Fluorescent Lamp
• Thin tubes. Phenomenon of electrical discharge.
• Length of tube determines the lumen output.
• High efficiency of phosphor and low current usage.
• Virtually no heat production
• Emission more or less similar to regular fluorescent lamp

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 Low Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamps
• Discharge through sodium vapour.
• For reducing ionizing potential: add neon, argon, xenon/helium.
• Normal discharge gives the characteristic YELLOW light.
• Needs choke to limit current.
• To keep operation ON, heat is needed. Rare earth tri-phosphor
• “Capacitor”/”Condenser” is added to improve “power factor”.
• Used for street lighting, security.
• NOT for emergency as it takes time to strike discharge.
• Colour rendition is poor.
• Visible light is 35%
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 High Pressure Sodium Vapour Lamp: SON
• Higher temperature . Hg-Na mixture
• Special ballast starting circuit to start ionization of xenon
• Visible light is 30%
• Yellow colour light (but less than LPS)
• Cannot be used for interiors
• Induces colour distortion
• T12, T8, T5

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 Mercury vapour Lamp
• Mixture of mercury and argon.
• First discharge through argon
• Increases heat and pressure.
• Hg vapourization & ionization
• Main arc striking through mercury vapour
• Greenish blue light

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 Metal Halide Lamps
• Very similar in working to mercury vapour lamps.
• Added elements are: Sodium, thallium, Indium in Iodide forms and a
little argon and mercury.
• This is a high intensity discharge lamp (HID).
• Good colour rendition, and low UV emission
• Required ‘ballast’. Higher efficiency. Good for exteriors.

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 LED LAMP
• Light Emitting Diode
• Diode is an electronic device (passive)
• Specialty is allowing of one-directional current
• External current flow is energy. External energy makes the charge
carriers to go to excited state
• Eventual relaxation to ground state E
Excited energy level
• In this process release of energy
Barrier potential
Light
equal to difference between states emission

Colour emission depends on energy Ground state, lowest energy

> 140 lumens per watt consumed

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 GLARE

Glare is difficulty seeing in the

presence of bright light

KEY ISSUE ALWAYS

The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) defines glare as:

visual conditions in which there is excessive contrast or an inappropriate
distribution of light sources that disturbs the observer or limits the ability
to distinguish details and objects

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• reduction of brightness of the rest of the scene by constriction of
the pupils
• reduction in contrast of the rest of the scene by scattering of the
bright light within the eye.
• reduction in contrast by scattering light in particles in the air, as when
the headlights of a car illuminate the fog close to the vehicle,
impeding vision at larger distance.
• reduction in contrast between print and paper by reflection of the
light source in the printed matter (veiling glare).
• reduction in contrast by reflection of bright areas on the surface of a
transparent medium as glass, plastic or water; for example when the
sky is reflected in a lake, so that the bottom below or objects in the
water cannot be seen (veiling glare).
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• 1,700 K Match flame, low pressure sodium lamps (LPS/SOX)
• 1,850 K Candle flame, sunset/sunrise
• 2,700–3,300 K Incandescent lamps
• 3,000 K Soft (or Warm) White compact fluorescent lamps
• 4,100–4,150 K Moonlight[8]
• 5,000 K Horizon daylight; Tubular fluorescent lamps or compact
fluorescent lamps (CFL)
• 5,500–6,000 K Vertical daylight, electronic flash
• 6,200 K Xenon short-arc lamp
• 6,500 K Daylight, overcast
• 6,500–10,500 K LCD or CRT screen
• 15,000–27,000 K Clear blue bright poleward sky

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 LUMINAIRES
This device will hold a lamp.
Main job is to redirect (Solid angle concept).
Will have impact on light distribution.
Important considerations:
Location, lamp safety, appearance (blending with interiors),
toughness (durability), high maintenance factor (MF).
Important purpose: Avoidance of glare
Necessary attributes: efficient reflectivity; desired spread and
uniformity; ability to protect the lamp device.

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• Deep concave & cylindrical (1915 design: Industrial)
Parabolic reflector

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Focussing Type (Company: Holophane): Holophorms
Lamp, reflector combination
Lamp, reflector and lens combination. Fresnel Lens ?
Parabolic reflectors, Elliptical reflectors lens

Indirect lighting:

Semi-indirect General diffusive

(adjustable) lighting
(adjustablity)
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• Concept of Fresnel lens
• Widely used in devices
• Mathematical concept of spiral continuous line
providing focus and divergence
• Instead of heavy glass based thick lenses including prismatic lenses,
this spiral based flat plastic sheet is so convenient.

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*Scattering in all directions provide “diffused” light.
*Absence of “glare”; provides ambient
general lighting

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 PLACEMENTS LINEAR SOURCE

Louvres and light directions

Absence of Glare
Concept of LOUVRE. Polished mirror finish. Obstructs
the direct component.
ILLUMINATION REGION IN A ROOM: Placement Effect

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• Open Cove: Area coverage and illumination level: By different
locational arrangements and surface reflectance.

• Down lighting
Reduced overall brightness; Dependence
on reflectance of floor & furnishings
(secondary sources). Dark ceilings. The
work-area will remain small.

Reflector
Fl. lamp
Concept of LOUVRE. Polished mirror finish.
Obstructs the direct component.

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Example: Video conferencing rooms:
OR Telepresence Room
Being a highly specialised area
illumination plays a major role in
functionality of space.
General illumination, specific brightness
on table surface, specific brightness on
the personal faces, glare free approach,
controlled brightness towards camera

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Day Light factor: E at work plane / E outside
on a horizontal plane, same time

Advantages: Natural, pleasing, no cost, day-

duration,
Full-spectrum, good colour temperature, good
CRI, well
Scattered, glare free
But: Only during day-time; higher ceiling ht; sky-
glare protection required; heating discomfort;
reflections from other adjacent surfaces.

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In ‘day-lighting’ sense of direction of light from windows/doors.
Absent at night during “general lighting”.
Therefore, provide ~150 lux ‘general’ lighting AND high lux level for
“task” lighting, with shades to prevent other people from being
disturbed. General lighting is diffused spread of light all over the used
space. 4 1 2 3 Always ON
Supplementary artificial lighting: shelf
Design depends on the illumination W
Work plane
required for the specific task.
“Total Integrated Lighting System”
Takes full advantage of ‘daylight’ & provide additional lights.

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• Task Lighting: Obviously depends on the task. Light on to the work.
• Absence of glare
• Furniture integrated. May be movable.
• Reflectance of surfaces to be considered: generally ceiling = 75%
reflections; Walls=upto 50%; Floor = 30%; Furniture = 25%.
• Down-lighters keep upper areas (like beams, roof surfaces) dark
• Indirect (diffusing) fixtures provide brightness
and gradient; blend easily with other lights.
(Energy conservation: Sensors, microprocessor control)
Various lux levels are required for different spaces.

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• Concept of Secondary sources: All surfaces can act as secondary
sources, assuming they are reflective in nature. More important
when space is smaller (gradient being smooth and more uniform)
• Depends on room characters.
• Indirect-source between beams: reasonably good task illumination
• Indirect-source mounted on beam: Good render of structure.
Illumination will be more uniform due to large primary lighting area of
ceiling.
• Max spacing = Mounting ht. Generally 0.8H
• Dist between wall & lamp = Mt.ht /2
Lum spacing: Flood:0.4-0.7H; Semi-direct >2H; W/diffusers: 1.2 to 1.6H

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Example
Room size 3.6x3.6x3.3 9x9x4.3
Mt ht for Recessed direct 3.3 4.3
Gen Diffuse 2.4 3.0
Indirect 2.4 3.0

Area Lighting:
High Intensity, Low CRI, Filament type/halogen/HID with rear reflectors
as luminaire.
Luminaire dimensions: Look into spec sheets.

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Indoor Lighting:
To promote visual tasks & defining activity areas; Safe use of interiors
& passages; Pleasing ambience.
Contrast: [Lt – Lb]/Lb t is task; b is background.
OFFICES:
Most economic: Open plan office. (less fixtures required;
Furniture integrated mobile approach possible. (task +
Background).
Reflectance of surfaces (Cei 85%; Walls 60%; Floor 30%; Fur 35%)
For stairs & lobbies: Wide linear sources
For baths and toilets: short term; filament based, CFL.
Co-ordinate airflow with lamp cooling.
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• Industries; Conference halls; Auditoria; Stage; Cinemas; Studios;
displays: Flood lights, spot lights, projection lamps etc.
• Mood lighting: plays on the psychology. Examples.
• External lighting: architectural lighting for building exteriors
• Game courts, arena, stores/yards, Street lights,
***Emergency lighting: Needs to have stored energy in the form of on-
line charging of a battery. In turn, this battery can activate a DC to AC
converter to provide the desired AC voltage. Importance is of the
waveform. Sinusoidal wave output with steady voltage is essential.
Emergency lamp should be low-current consuming of moderate light
output.

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• Industries: Diffusing glass

• Slanted transparency h 2h

• Saw tooth transparency h

• Supplementary lighting from

top and Sides
Saw tooth
(both Top & Side lighting and pattern

fenestration above window for

sports auditoria, public buildings, large spaces)
Reflectivity of interior surfaces. W
Total lux lvl

Supplementary Artificial Lighting

Integrated Lighting: Day light component, Luminaire
Contribution, Surface reflections & scatter
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 Audio-Conferencing Hall
• Seating style for listening and
presentation viewing comfort
Wide angle down-lighter
Narrow angle down-lighter
General low lighting ~ 100 lux
General bright lights >150 lux
Table top reading >200 lux at 1M lvl
Non-reflecting screen

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Auditorium
• Main Hall: Down-lighting: High intensity, dimmable.
• Step lights, wall mounted guide lights, chair lights
steps
• PAR, Plano-convex
• Flood, Profile
Non-glare
• Halogen, Dimmer
• Plano-convex Profile

• Exit lamp
PAR
• Emergency cyclorama
Stage

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Lux levels requirements:
General: 100 to 125 Genl Chemical wrks: 100-150
Sheet metal: >200 Textiles: 150-700
Textile designs: 1000 Precision: 1500-2000
Yards: Stocks: 20 to 30 Pump House etc: 100
Machine shops: 250 & above Printing: 500
Proof Reading: 1000 to 2000

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INDOOR LIGHTING
General Lighting: More for uniformity, but monotonous, directionless,
Non gradient type. Provide general lighting of 200 lux. Emphasis on
localized lighting say 700 lux. This should have shaded luminaire (to
avoid glare) to all.
Room ratio decided the C.U.: L x W /{L+W}Hm Decides the efficiency
of the “Integrated Lighting System”.
Positioning windows for full day-light utilization. To locate lights now.
Consider surface reflectance.

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• 125 – 200 Lux: Lobbies, Passages, reception areas, General areas.
• 275-325: General Office Areas, Conference Room, Drawing Room
• 450-750: Office areas task oriented
• E = nФ x coefficient of utilization CU x maintenance factor MF/Area
of the work surface
If 10 incandescent lamps of 500 Watts (each of 10,600 lumens) in an
area of 50 sq.m. , CU = 0.6, MF(or light loss factor)=0.8, calculate
illumination:
E = 10x 10,600x 0.6x 0.8 / 50 = 1017 lux (Ans).

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Accent lighting: providing special emphasis on an
object of interest in relation to its surroundings.
Aim is to draw attention to.
This itself does not become part of general lighting.
Different from task lighting, being emphasis on
visuals (object of interest)

General lighting is mandatory to provide ambience

on which riding is accent lighting. Narrow beam
usage

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 STUDIOS
W
Three Sizes: Small, Medium & Large
Control room levels will be different

Most of the spaces Floor lamps can be utilised. On studio floors,

frame-supported flood lights or on stands with some colour
optimization.
General lighting from: FL, CFL, LED of 100-150 lux in both main hall and
control room.
Projection High Intensity lamps, spot and flood lights are needed.
Some electronic control of brightness will be helpful

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• Public area with dark surroundings: 20 - 50 lux i.e lumens/sq.m.
• Simple orientation with short visits: 50 – 100
• Working area occasional visual task: 100 – 150
• Home, theatres, archives, warehouses: 150
• Office work with PC, Library, showroom, grocery, labs: 500
• Super markets, Mech workshops: 750
• Drawing work, Detailed mech workshops, Op. Theatre: >1,000
• Detailed drg work,Jewell,very detailed mech workshop: 1,500 – 2,000
• Low contrast visual task, Small size task prolonged period: 2,000 –
5,000
• Vey prolonged exacting visual task: 5,000 – 10,000
• Very special task extremely low contrast & small size: 10,000 – 15,000

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• OFFICES: Most economical is “Open Layout” or “Open Plan”.
Least number of fixtures would be needed. General ambience could be
integral. Absence of Glare.
Reflectance of surfaces could be utilised. Semi-direct luminaires /
lamps can be used. Lux level as per activity or area-location.
• Task lighting to be decided by individual requirement.
• SHOPS: Direct service area: 200 to 600 lux
• Stores: >200
• Displays, show-cases: 2500 – 5000
• Main counter: >500
• Printing: >500; Fine reading: >1500; Precision: >2000

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• AUDITORIA & HALLS: To enable free movement: >150 lux. Floures
lamps
• Parking: >20 lux
• Illuminating posters, advertising etc: >500
• Emergency lights: >20 with exit indications
• Special stage lighting: Use of PAR lamps for curtain washing & stage
front; Specialised lamps for human/scenery highlighting;
• Special washing light for cyclorama: halogen 1000W, >350 lux

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• Exterior Lighting
• In small and big industries, roads etc. lighting is primarily
meant for safety and security. Importance is for uniformity of
illumination. OI
0 I
• EA = I0 / h2 ; EB = Iϴ cosϴ / d2 ϴ Iϴ sinϴ

• cosϴ = h/d; EB = Iϴ cos3ϴ/h2 h

d
• For Es to be equal: Iϴ cosϴ

• Iϴ = I0 /cos3ϴ (difficult to obtain) A B

• Therefore supplementary neighbour lamp support required

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• Offices: General ambience (ambient lighting) is vital for the
feeling of gradient. Over this supplementary “task” lighting
is essential (depending on the kind of ‘task’). Sometimes
facility for brightness control would be needed to focus
attention elsewhere (e.g. projection).

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• Restaurants:
• Mood creation: Primary objective
• Ambient lighting, colour temperature
• Spectrum visibility
• Task lighting on individual table, 20 lux
• Resulting in silhouette of persons sitting
on chairs
Enhancement of background activity (say music)
by synchronized coloured lighting
[saving energy by LED based lamps]
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Ambience: Col. Temp depend on
articles on display. No glare. 50 lux
Task lighting: More for focus on items
For emphasis. Use of LED/halogen
spots.
Individual switching for energy saving

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 • For area-lighting (i) Spacing between poles not more than
4.5 times Mounting ht. (ii) Spacing between area-edge and
the next pole not more than 2.5 times Mounting ht.
Max. limits are shown 2.5x
MH

4.5x
MH

2.5x
MH
2.5x
MH 4.5 x MH

• If diffusing reflector and bottom diffusers are used in the

lamp then the distances could be 0.75 MH & 1.5 MH.
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• EXTERIOR LIGHTING:
• Landscape: Power source: 220 V A.C. 50 Hz
• Or 12 V/24 V A.C. 50 Hz via a transformer
• Use of high power lighting from floor level up
• Directed lights from poles/masts
• Bollard lights (low level on floor)
• Shadows emphasize light

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Open Exhibitions

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SPORTS
COMPLEX

Infrared LED: wavelength of 850 nm.

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 Importance of absence of shadows, security around and
making way through to outside
Adequate lux level, uniformity, proper colour temperature,
Appropriate height to avoid glare.
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Indoor Sports Stadium
named after Thyagaraja

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Numerical problem (Repeat)
• Four lamps each of 200 cd suspended 9M above ground, placed at the
corners of side 12M. Calculated illuminance directly under each lamp.
• Illum E due to A at its base A A B
C
θ
=200/92=2.47 lm/m2
9

tanΘ = 12/9; Θ=53o8’; cosΘ= 0.6 12 C

Illum due to B at base of A = [200/92] 0.63=0.53 lm/m2

Similarly due to D: 0.53. Now due to C: tanΘ = 12√2/9; Θ=62o4’
cosΘ= 0.4685. Illum = [200/92]x(0.4685)3 = 0.28 lm/m2
Total E at base of A= 2.47+0.53+0.53+0.28 = 3.81 lm/m2 (Ans)

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