Physical Principles of

Sensing
SOPHOMORE CLINIC I
FALL 2004

1
 Definition
 A sensor is a device that receives a stimulus and
responds with an electrical signal.

Fig 1.1

Level control system. A sight tube and the

operator’s eye form a sensor.
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 What are some quantities
that can be sensed?

 Motion, position,  Sound

displacement  Moisture
 Velocity and  Light
acceleration
 Radiation
 Force, strain
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Chemical presence
 Flow
These quantities are the stimulus.

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 The Response is an
Electrical Signal

 When we say electrical we  The voltage, current or

mean a signal which can charge may be describe
be channeled, amplified by:
and modified by electronic • Amplitude
devices:
• Frequency
• Voltage
• Phase
• Current
• Digital code
• Charge

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 Any sensor is an energy converter
 This conversion can be direct or it may
require transducers.
Fig 1.2

 Example:
• A chemical sensor may have a part which
converts the energy of a chemical reaction into
heat (transducer) and another part, a
thermopile, which converts heat into an
electrical signal.
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 Physical Principles of Sensing
 Charges, fields &  Seebeck and
potentials Peltier effects
 Capacitance  Thermal properties
 Magnetism of materials
 Induction  Heat transfer
 Resistance  Light
 Piezoelectric effect

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 Types of Sensor
 Direct
• A sensor that can convert a non-
electrical stimulus into an electrical
signal with intermediate stages.
 Thermocouple (temperature to voltage)
 Indirect
• A sensor that multiple conversion steps
to transform the measured signal into
an electrical signal.
 A fiber-optic displacement sensor:
 Current photons current

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 Today’s Topic:
Physical Principles that are Used to
Effect a Direct Conversion of
Stimuli into Electrical Signals

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 Electric Charges, Fields, &
Potentials
 Any charged object is subject to a force when in
the region of an electric field.
• A field can be used to detect the presence of charge or
the opposite can be true and the force on a charge
determined to detect a field.

f
E
q0

q
E
40 r 2

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 Other Geometries

  The field is strongest at

E E areas of highest
20 r 2 0 curvature

=charge/unit length =charge/unit area

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 Electric Dipole
 Dipoles are found in crystalline materials and form a
foundation for piezoelectric and pyroelectric detectors.
• The dipole is a combination of 2 opposite charges placed 2a
apart. The electric field is the vector sum to the two fields.

qa p
E 
40 r 3 80 r 3
p represents the
dipole moment
In the presence of an E
field the dipole will
develop a torque

  pE

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 Capacitance
 Two isolated conductive objects of
arbitrary shape which can hold an electric
charge is called a capacitor.
• An E field is developed between the two conductors.

q 0 A
C 
V d

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 Capacitor as Displacement Sensor
 If the inner conductor can be moved
in and out, the measured
capacitance will be a function of l.

20l
C
ln b / a 

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 Dielectric Constant
 The material between the plates of the capacitor can also
be used to sense changes in the environment.
• When vacuum (or air) is replaced by another material, the
capacitance increases by a factor of , known as the dielectric
constant of the material
• The increase in C is due to the polarization of the molecules of
the material used as an insulator.

q  0 A
C  
V d

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 Example – A Water Level Sensor
 The total capacitance of the coaxial sensor shown below is
the capacitance of the water-free portion plus the
capacitance of the water-filled portion. As the level of the
water changes, the total capacitance changes.

Ch  C free  C filled
20
Ch  H  h1   
ln b / a 

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 Magnetism
 There are two methods of generating a magnetic
field:
• Permanent magnets (magnetic materials).
• The magnetic field generated by a current.

Force is A compass
generated on a needle will
test magnet in respond to the
the field of magnetic field
magnetic generated by a
materials. current.

Magnetic field, B
“flux” is the field density, B
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 Sources of Magnetic Field
Electric current sets a
circular magnetic field
around a conductor.

Moving electron sets

a field,
superposition of
field vectors results
in a combined
magnetic field of a
permanent magnet.

Magnets are useful for fabricating magnetic sensors for the detection
of motion, displacement, and position.

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 Induction
 A phenomenon related to magnetism is induction,
the generation of voltage from a changing
magnetic field.
• If the coil has no magnetic core, the flux is proportional
to current and the voltage proportional to di/dt.

d n B  dLi di
v   L
dt dt dt

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 Resistance
 If we apply a battery across two points of a piece of
material, an E field will be set up where E=V/l

V
R
i
E V 1 Va
   
j l i / a  li
Va l l
The tendency of the material R  
to resist the flow of electrons
il a a
is called its resistivity, , and
we say that the material has
a particular electrical
resistance, R.
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 Sensitivity of Resistance
 To Temperature:
Specific resistivity of
tungsten as a function
of temperature.

  0 1   t  t0 

 is the temperature
coefficient of resistivity.

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Application for Temperature Indication using a
Laminate of Materials with Two Different ’s.

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 To Strain:
F dl
Strain changes the   E  Ee
geometry of a conductor a l
and its resistance. Stress = Young’s Modulus x strain


(1) R l2
v
dR 
(2)  Se l
dl v
 l l dl  dl 
(3) dR  S e ldl  S e  dl   S e  R S e 
v a l a l  l 
dR R  R1
(4)  See  2
R R1

Since length is changing the factor of 2 in the second equation

becomes a variable which depends on the material.

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To Moisture:

For the hygristor, the resistance of the polymer changes with the
absorption of water molecules.

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 The Piezoelectric Effect
 The piezoelectric effect is the generation
of electric charge by a crystalline material
upon subjecting it to stress.

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 Piezoelectric Sensor
Because a crystal with deposited
electrodes forms a capacitor the
voltage developed can be
expressed as:

Qx d x
V  Fx
C C
Where dx is the piezoelectric
coefficient in the x direction and
Fx is the applied force in the x
Piezoelectric crystals are
direction.
direct converters of
mechanical energy into
electrical energy.

Laminated 2-layer piezoelectric sensor

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 Pyroelectric Effect
dPs PQ is the pyroelectric charge
PQ  coefficient and Ps is related to
dT the charge developed on the
electrodes when the sensor is
subjected to heat flow.

If the sensor has the “capacitor”

form:
Pyroelectric materials are
crystals capable of generating Q  PQ AT
an electrical charge in response Q  r  0 A
C 
to heat flow. V h
then
Q PQ AT PQ AT h
V     PQ T
C C  r 0 A / h  r 0

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 The material loses its
usefulness at the Curie Temp –
the point at which polarization
disappears.

The electric charge reaches its

peak nearly instantaneously and
then decays with a thermal time
constant, T

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 Seebeck and Peltier Effects
 The Seebeck effect is a direct conversion of
thermal energy into electric energy.

The varying temperature

along the bar is a source of
electromotive force
(voltage) and current will
flow.
This is the principle behind
the thermocouple.

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 Thermoelectric Loops
VAB   A   B T 

If a loop of conductor has If a loop of conductor has

points at 2 different points at 2 different
temperatures, current flows. temperatures, again current
But if there is a single flows. If the loop is composed
conductor no measurable net of 2 different conductors,
current flows. measurable net current flows
due to a difference in the
Seebeck coefficients.
A and B are the Seebeck coefficients
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 Output Voltage from Standard
Thermocouples

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 TYPES – MATERIALS – TEMP RANGES

Thermocouple Type Names of Materials Useful Application Range

Platinum30% Rhodium (+) 2500 -3100F
B Platinum 6% Rhodium (-) 1370-1700C
W5Re Tungsten 5% Rhenium (+) 3000-4200F
C W26Re Tungsten 26% Rhenium (-) 1650-2315C
Chromel (+) 200-1650F
E Constantan (-) 95-900C
Iron (+) 200-1400F
J Constantan (-) 95-760C
Chromel (+) 200-2300F
K Alumel (-) 95-1260C
Nicrosil (+) 1200-2300F
N Nisil (-) 650-1260C
Platinum 13% Rhodium (+) 1600-2640F
R Platinum (-) 870-1450C
Platinum 10% Rhodium (+) 1800-2640F
S Platinum (-) 980-1450C
Copper (+) -330-660F
T Constantan (-) -200-350C

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 The Peltier Effect

The Peltier effect concerns the reversible absorption of heat which

usually takes place when an electric current crosses a junction
between 2 dissimilar metals.
It can produce heat or cold depending on the direction of electric
current through the junction.

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 Light
(Electromagnetic Radiation)
c
E  h  h

E is the energy of the
radiation
c = c x 108 m/s
h = 6.63 x 10-23 J-s
 is the wavelength of the
radiation

UV and visible photons have relatively high energy levels and are easily
detected. In the far IR the energies become very small and thermal
detectors are used.

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 Conclusions
 A sensor is a device that receives a
stimulus and responds with an
electrical signal.
 The final stage of any sensor is
dependent upon the electrical
properties of the sensor materials.
 The materials introduced today are
used in the design and fabrication of
many different types of sensors.

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