CHAPTER 20

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND LYMPHOID

ORGANS AND TISSUES
OBJECTIVES:
The student should be able to:
1. State the components and functions of the
lymphatic system.
2. Name and describe the structures and vessels
through which lymph flows from the interstitial
compartment to the point where it is returned to
the bloodstream, and list the factors that aid its
flow.
3. Describe the structure, locations and functions of
diffuse lymphoid tissue, lymphoid follicles, lymph
nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils, and MALT.
Key Terms:
• lymphatic vessels (lymphatics), lymph, lymph nodes, lymph
capillaries, collecting lymphatic vessels, right lymphatic duct,
thoracic duct

• T cells (T lymphocytes), B cells (B lymphocytes), plasma cells,

macrophages

• lymphoid tissue, diffuse lymphoid tissue, lymphoid follicles

(nodules)

• lymphoid organs, primary lymphoid organs, secondary lymphoid

organs, lymph nodes, capsule, trabeculae, cortex, medulla, lymph
sinuses, afferent lymphatic vessels, hilum, efferent lymphatic
vessels, spleen, hilum, splenic artery, splenic vein, white pulp,
red pulp, thymus, palatine tonsils, lingual tonsil, pharyngeal
tonsil, Peyer’s patches, appendix, mucosa-associated lymphoid
tissue (MALT)
 Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs
and Tissues
• Lymphatic system
– returns fluids leaked from blood vessels back to
blood
– consists of three parts:
1. Network of lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
2. Lymph: fluid in vessels
3. Lymph nodes: cleanse lymph
• Lymphoid organs and tissues
– provide structural basis of immune system by
housing phagocytic cells and lymphocytes
– spleen, thymus, tonsils, lymph nodes, other
lymphoid tissues
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lymphatic System: functions
1. Returns fluids that leaked from blood
vessels back to blood: (~3 L/day) via
lymphatic vessels
ISF  lymph in lymph capillaries 
lymphatic collecting vessels (and lymph
nodes)  lymphatic trunks  lymphatic
ducts  subclavian veins
WHY necessary?
2. Offers immune protection  contains cells of the
immune system  lymphoid organs contains
phagocytic cells & lymphocytes
3. Transport absorbed fat via lacteals (lymphatic
capillaries in intestine)
 Distribution and Structure of Lymphatic
Vessels
• Lymphatic vessels offer a one-way system,
ensuring lymph flows only toward heart
• Lymph vessels (lymphatics) include:
– Lymphatic capillaries
– Larger lymphatic vessels

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.1a Distribution and special features of lymphatic capillaries.

Venous system Arterial system

Heart
Lymphatic system:
Lymphatic duct
Lymphatic trunk
Lymph node

Collecting
lymphatic
vessels,
Tissue
with valves
fluid
Blood Lymphatic
capillaries capillary Tissue cell Blood Lymphatic
capillaries capillaries

Structural relationship between a capillary bed of the blood vascular system

and lymphatic capillaries.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Lymphatic capillaries

– Blind-ended vessels that weave between tissue

cells and blood capillaries
• Absent from bones, teeth, bone marrow, and CNS
(CNS uses CSF for drainage)
– Similar to blood capillaries, but more permeable
– Can take up larger molecules and particles that
blood capillaries cannot
• Example: proteins, cell debris, pathogens, and
cancer cells
• Can act as route for pathogens or cancer cells to
travel throughout body

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Lymphatic capillaries (cont.)

– Increased permeability due to two specialized

structures
1. Endothelial cells overlap loosely to form one-way
minivalves
2. Minivalves are anchored by collagen filaments to
matrix, so increases in ECF volume opens
minivalves even more
– Decreases in ECF cause minivalves to close
– Lacteals: specialized lymph capillaries present
in intestinal mucosa
• Absorb digested fat and deliver fatty lymph (chyle) to
the blood

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.1b Distribution and special features of lymphatic capillaries.

Filaments anchored
to connective tissue

Endothelial cell

Flaplike minivalve

Fibroblast in loose
connective tissue

Lymphatic capillaries are blind-ended tubes in

which adjacent endothelial cells overlap each
other, forming flaplike minivalves.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Larger lymphatic vessels

– Lymph capillaries drain into increasingly larger

vessels called collecting lymphatic vessels
– Consist of collecting vessels, trunks, and ducts
– Have structures and tunics similar to veins,
except:
• Have thinner walls, with more internal valves
• Anastomose more frequently
– Collecting vessels in skin travel with superficial
veins, but deep vessels travel with arteries

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Larger lymphatic vessels (cont.)
– Lymphatic trunks, which are formed by union of
largest collecting vessels, drain large areas of
body
– Lymph is delivered from trunks into one of two
large lymphatic ducts
• Right lymphatic duct drains right upper arm and right
side of head and thorax
• Thoracic duct drains rest of body
– In about half of individuals, starts out as an enlarged
sac, cisterna chyli
– Each empties lymph into venous circulation at
junction of internal jugular and subclavian veins
on its own side of body
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 20.2a The lymphatic system.

Right jugular trunk Internal

Right lymphatic jugular veins
Esophagus
duct Trachea
Right subclavian
Left jugular trunk
trunk
Left subclavian
Right subclavian
trunk
vein
Right broncho- Left subclavian vein
mediastinal trunk Entrance of thoracic
Brachiocephalic duct into vein
veins Left broncho-
Superior vena cava mediastinal
Azygos vein trunk
Ribs

Thoracic duct

Hemiazygos vein
Cisterna chyli

Right lumbar
trunk

Left lumbar trunk

Inferior vena cava Intestinal trunk

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.2b The lymphatic system.

Internal Regional
jugular vein lymph
nodes:
Entrance of Cervical
right lymphatic nodes
duct into vein
Entrance of
thoracic duct
into vein
Axillary
nodes
Thoracic duct

Cisterna chyli `
Aorta

Inguinal
Collecting nodes
lymphatic
vessels

Drained by the right lymphatic duct

Drained by the thoracic duct
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Lymph Transport
• Lymph system is a low-pressure system like
venous system
• Lymph is propelled by same mechanisms:
– Milking action of skeletal muscle
– Pressure changes in thorax during breathing
– Valves to prevent backflow
– Pulsations of nearby arteries
– Contractions of smooth muscle in walls of lymphatics
• Physical activity increases flow of lymph;
immobilization of area keeps needed inflammatory
material in area for faster healing

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Lymph Transport
Lymphoid Organs
• consist of lymphoid cells (e.g. lymphocytes,
macrophages) and lymphoid tissue
• grouped into two functional categories:
– Primary lymphoid organs: areas where T and
B cells mature—red bone marrow and thymus
• T and B cells originate in bone marrow, but only B cells
matures there; T cells mature in thymus
– Secondary lymphoid organs: areas where
mature lymphocytes first encounter their antigen
and become activated
• Nodes, spleen, MALT (mucosa-associated lymphoid
tissue) and diffuse lymphoid tissues
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 20.4 Lymphoid organs.

Primary lymphoid Secondary lymphoid

organs organs

• Lymph nodes
• Thymus (see Figure 20.2b)

• Red bone
marrow • Tonsils

• Spleen

• Peyer’s patches
(aggregated
lymphoid nodules
in small intestine)

• Appendix

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Lymphoid Cells

• consist of
1. immune system cells found in lymphoid tissue
• Lymphocytes
• Macrophages
• Dendritic cells
2. supporting cells that form lymphoid tissue
structures
• Reticular cells
– produce reticular fibers called stroma
– Stroma: network-like support that acts as scaffolding for
immune cells

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Immune system cells
• Lymphocytes:
– cells of the adaptive immune system
– mature into one of two main types:
• T cells (T lymphocytes)
– attack and destroy infected cells
• B cells (B lymphocytes)
– produce plasma cells, which secrete antibodies
• Macrophages:
– Develop from monocytes
– phagocytize & present foreign substances to activate T
cells
• Dendritic cells:
– capture antigens and deliver them to lymph nodes; also
help activate T cells
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 20.3 Reticular connective tissue in a human lymph node.

Reticular cells
on reticular Medullary sinus
fibers
Lymphocytes

Reticular fiber

Macrophage

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Lymphoid Tissue

• Main functions:
– Houses and provides proliferation sites for
lymphocytes
– Offers surveillance vantage points for
lymphocytes and macrophages as they filter
through lymph
• Largely composed of reticular connective
tissue
• Two main types:
– Diffuse lymphoid tissue
– Lymphoid follicles
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Lymphoid Tissue Types
– Diffuse lymphoid tissue: loose arrangement of
lymphoid cells and some reticular fibers
• Found in virtually every body organ
• Larger collections in lamina propria of mucous
membranes
– Lymphoid follicles (nodules): solid, spherical
bodies consisting of tightly packed lymphoid cells
and reticular fibers
• Contain germinal centers of proliferating B cells
• May form part of larger lymphoid organs (e.g. lymph
nodes)
• May form isolated aggregates (e.g. Peyer’s patches,
appendix)
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Lymph Nodes

• principal secondary lymphoid organs of body

• Most are embedded deep in connective tissue in
clusters along lymphatic vessels
• Some are nearer to body surface in inguinal, axillary,
and cervical regions of body
• Two main functions:
1. Cleansing the lymph: act as lymph “filters”
- Macrophages remove and destroy microorganisms and debris that
enter lymph
2. Immune system activation:
- offer a place for lymphocytes to become activated and mount an
attack against antigens

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.2b The lymphatic system.

Internal Regional
jugular vein lymph
nodes:
Entrance of Cervical
right lymphatic nodes
duct into vein
Entrance of
thoracic duct
into vein
Axillary
nodes
Thoracic duct

Cisterna chyli `
Aorta

Inguinal
Collecting nodes
lymphatic
vessels

Drained by the right lymphatic duct

Drained by the thoracic duct
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Structure of a Lymph Node

• Vary in shape and size, but most are bean

shaped
• Surrounded by external fibrous capsule
• Capsule fibers extend inward as trabeculae
that divide node into compartments
• Two histologically distinct regions of node:
1. Cortex
2. Medulla

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Structure of a Lymph Node (cont.)

1. Cortex
– Superficial area of cortex contains follicles with
germinal centers that are heavy with dividing
B cells
– Deep cortex houses T cells in transit
• T cells circulate continuously among blood,
lymph nodes, and lymph
– Abundant numbers of dendritic cells are closely
associated with both T and B cells
• Play a role in activating both lymphocytes

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Structure of a Lymph Node (cont.)

2. Medulla
– Medullary cords extend inward from cortex and
contain B cells, T cells, and plasma cells
• Lymph sinuses are found throughout node
– Consist of large lymphatic capillaries spanned by
crisscrossing reticular fibers
– Macrophages reside on fibers, checking for and
phagocytizing any foreign matter

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.5a Lymph node.
Afferent
Cortex
lymphatic
• Lymphoid follicle
vessels
• Germinal center
• Subcapsular sinus

Efferent
lymphatic
vessels

Hilum
Medulla
` • Medullary
cord
• Medullary
sinus

Trabeculae
Capsule
Longitudinal view of the internal structure of a
lymph node and associated lymphatics
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 20.5b Lymph node.

Lymphoid
follicles
Trabecula

Subcapsular
sinus

Capsule

Medullary
cords

Medullary
sinuses
Photomicrograph of part of a
lymph node (72×)
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Circulation in the Lymph Nodes
• Lymph enters convex side of node via afferent
lymphatic vessels
• Travels through large subcapsular sinus and then
into smaller sinuses found throughout cortex and
medulla
• Lymph then enters medullary sinuses
• Finally exits concave side at hilum via efferent
lymphatic vessels
– Presence of fewer efferent vessels causes flow to
somewhat stagnate; allows lymphocytes and
macrophages time to function
– Lymph travels through several nodes

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.5a Lymph node.
Afferent
Cortex
lymphatic
• Lymphoid follicle
vessels
• Germinal center
• Subcapsular sinus

Efferent
lymphatic
vessels

Hilum
Medulla
` • Medullary
cord
• Medullary
sinus

Trabeculae
Capsule
Longitudinal view of the internal structure of a
lymph node and associated lymphatics
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Spleen

• blood-rich organ
• Served by splenic artery and vein, which enter and
exit at the hilum
• encased by fibrous capsule; has trabeculae
• contains lymphocytes, macrophages, and huge
numbers of erythrocytes in two distinct areas:
– White pulp
• Contains mostly lymphocytes on reticular fibers
• White pulp clusters are found around central arteries
– Red pulp
• Rich in RBCs and macrophages that engulf them

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.4 Lymphoid organs.

Primary lymphoid Secondary lymphoid

organs organs

• Lymph nodes
• Thymus (see Figure 20.2b)

• Red bone
marrow • Tonsils

• Spleen

• Peyer’s patches
(aggregated
lymphoid nodules
in small intestine)

• Appendix

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.6c The spleen.

Diaphragm

Spleen

Adrenal
gland

Left
kidney
Splenic
artery
Pancreas

Photograph of the spleen in its normal position

in the abdominal cavity, anterior view.

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.6b The spleen.

Capsule
Trabecula
Splenic cords
Splenic sinusoids
Arterioles
and
capillaries
Red pulp
White pulp
Central artery

Splenic artery
Splenic vein
Diagram of spleen histology

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Spleen

• Functions:
– Site of lymphocyte proliferation and immune
surveillance and response
– Cleanses blood of aged blood cells and platelets;
macrophages remove debris
– Stores breakdown products of RBCs (e.g. iron)
for later reuse
– Stores blood platelets and monocytes for release
into blood when needed
– site of fetal erythrocyte production (normally
ceases before birth)
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Thymus
• Important functions early in life; most active
during childhood, stop growing during
adolescence
• differs from other lymphoid organs in important
ways:
1. Has no follicles because it lacks B cells
2. Does not directly fight antigens
• Functions strictly in T lymphocyte maturation
3. Stroma is made up of epithelial cells, not
reticular fibers
• Provide environment in which T lymphocytes become
immunocompetent
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 20.9 The thymus.

Capsule

Cortex

Medulla

Thymic
corpuscles

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 MALT

• Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

– Lymphoid tissues in mucous membranes
throughout body
• Protects from pathogens trying to enter body
• Found in mucosa of respiratory tract,
genitourinary organs, and digestive tract;
largest collections of MALT found in
– Tonsils
– Peyer’s patches
– Appendix
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Tonsils
• Simplest lymphoid organs
• Form ring of lymphatic tissue around pharynx;
appear as swellings of mucosa
• Named according to location:
– Palatine tonsils: at posterior end of oral cavity
• Largest of tonsils and most often infected
– Lingual tonsil: lumpy collection of follicles at base
of tongue
– Pharyngeal tonsil: also called adenoids; located in
posterior wall of nasopharynx

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Tonsils (cont.)
• gather and remove pathogens in food or air
• Contain follicles with germinal centers and
scattered lymphocytes
• Are not fully encapsulated
• Overlying epithelium invaginates, forming tonsillar
crypts
– Trap and destroy bacteria or particulate matter
– allows immune cells to become activated and
build memory cells against these potential
pathogens

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.7 Histology of the palatine tonsil.

Pharyngeal tonsil
Palatine tonsil
Lingual tonsil

Germinal centers Tonsillar

in lymphoid follicles crypt
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Peyer’s Patches

• clusters of lymphoid follicles in wall of distal

portion of small intestine
– Also called aggregated lymphoid nodules
• Structurally similar to tonsils
• Location aids in functions
1. Destroy bacteria, preventing them from
breaching intestinal wall
2. Generate “memory” lymphocytes

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 20.8 Peyer’s patch (aggregated lymphoid nodules).

Follicles of a
Peyer’s patch
(aggregated
lymphoid nodules)

Smooth muscle in
the intestinal wall

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Appendix

• offshoot of first part of large intestine

• Contains a large number of lymphoid follicles
• Location aids in functions (like Peyer’s patches)
1. Destroy bacteria, preventing them from
breaching intestinal wall
2. Generate “memory” lymphocytes

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Test your knowledge:

Do the following Review Questions

at the end of Chapter 20:
1, 3-5, 7-13