What Are Psychology’s Six Main

Perspectives?

Six main viewpoints dominate

modern psychology: biological,
cognitive, behavioral, whole-
person, developmental, and
sociocultural perspectives.

Each perspective grew out of

radical new concepts about
mind and behavior.
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved
Six Modern Perspectives of Psychology
Biological

Cognitive

Behavioral

Whole-Person

Developmental

Sociocultural
Perspective
What Determines Behavior?
Biological The brain, the nervous system,
the endocrine system, and
Cognitive genes

Behavioral
Fields of Study:
Whole-Person Neuroscience
Evolutionary Psychology

Developmental
Sources:
Sociocultural Rene Descartes
Perspective
View of Human Nature:
Biological
We are information-processing
systems.
Cognitive
What Determines Behavior?
Behavioral A person’s unique pattern of
perceptions, interpretations,
Whole-Person expectations, beliefs, and
memories
Developmental Sources:
Wilhelm Wundt
Sociocultural William James
Perspective
View of Human Nature:
Biological We respond to surroundings
according to principles of behavioral
learning.
Cognitive
What Determines Behavior?
Behavioral
The stimuli in our environment, and
the previous consequences of our
Whole-Person behaviors

Developmental Sources:
John B. Watson
B. F. Skinner
Sociocultural
Perspective
What Determines Behavior?
Biological Psychodynamic: processes in our
unconscious minds
Source: Sigmund Freud
Cognitive
Humanistic: our innate needs to
Behavioral grow and to fulfill our best possible
potential
Sources: Carl Rogers, Abraham
Whole-Person Maslow

Developmental Trait and temperament: unique

personality characteristics that are
consistent over time and across
Sociocultural situations
Source: Ancient Greeks
Perspective
Biological What Determines Behavior?
The Interaction of heredity and
Cognitive environment, which unfolds in
predictable patterns throughout
Behavioral the lifespan

Whole-Person
Sources:
Developmental Mary Ainsworth
Jean Piaget

Sociocultural
Perspective
Biological What Determines Behavior?
The power of the situation:
Cognitive social and cultural influences
can overpower the influence of
Behavioral all other determining factors.

Field of Study:
Whole-Person
Cross-cultural psychology

Developmental Sources:
Stanley Milgram
Sociocultural Philip Zimbardo
 How Do Psychologists
Develop New Knowledge?

Psychologists, like all other

scientists, use the scientific
method to test their ideas
empirically.
 How Do Psychologists
Develop New Knowledge?
Scientific Method
A four-step process for empirical investigation of a
hypothesis under conditions designed to control
biases and subjective judgments
Empirical Investigation
An approach to research that relies on sensory
experience and observation as research data
Theory
A testable explanation for a set of facts or
observations
The Four Steps of the Scientific Method

Developing a hypothesis

Gathering objective data

Analyzing the results

Publishing, criticizing, and

replicating the results
The Four Steps of the Scientific Method
Hypothesis
Developing a
hypothesis • A statement predicting the
outcome of a scientific study;
Gathering the relationship among
objective data variables

Analyzing the Operational Definitions

results • Exact procedures used in
establishing experimental
Publishing,
criticizing, and conditions and
replicating the measurement of results
results
The Four Steps of the Scientific Method
Developing a
hypothesis
Data
Gathering
objective data
• Pieces of information
gathered by a researcher to
Analyzing the be used to test a hypothesis
results

Publishing,
criticizing, and
replicating the
results
The Four Steps of the Scientific Method
Developing a
hypothesis

Gathering
objective data

Analyzing the Based on statistical analyses

results of results, the hypothesis is
accepted or rejected.
Publishing,
criticizing, and
replicating the
results
The Four Steps of the Scientific Method

Developing a
hypothesis
The completed study is
Gathering presented to the scientific
objective data community.

Analyzing the Replicate

results • Redoing an experiment to
see if you get the same
Publishing, results
criticizing, and
replicating the
results
Four
Steps in
the
Scientific
Method
 Questions Science Cannot Answer

The scientific method is not appropriate for

answering questions that cannot be put
to an objective, empirical test.
• Ethics
• Morality
• Preferences
• Aesthetics
• Existential issues
• Religion
• Law
Five Types of Psychological Research

Experiments

Correlational Studies

Surveys

Naturalistic Observations

Case Studies
Types of Psychological Research
Experiments
The researcher controls all conditions and
directly manipulates the conditions.

Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Experimental Group
Control Group
Random Assignment
 Types of Psychological Research

Correlational Study
The relationship between variables is studied,
but without experimental manipulation of an
independent variable; cause-and-effect
relationships cannot be determined.
 Types of Psychological Research

Surveys
A technique used in descriptive research;
typically involves seeking people’s responses to
a prepared set of verbal or written items

Political Pollsters
Marketing Consultants
 Types of Psychological Research

Naturalistic Observations
A form of descriptive research involving behavior
assessment of people or animals in their natural
surroundings

Childrearing Practices
Shopping Habits
Animal Behavior
Types of Psychological Research

Case Studies
Research involving a single individual (or, at
most, a few individuals)

Small Sample Size

Lack of Control
Limited Generalizability
 Biases in Psychological Research
Expectancy Bias
• The researcher allows his or her
expectations to affect the outcome of a
study
•Blind control
Controlling Bias:
•Placebo: a sham “drug” or fake treatment
•Double-blind control: both participants and
researchers are unaware of group
assignment
 Ethical Issues in Psychological
Research

American Psychological Association (APA)

• Ethical principles of psychologists and
code of conduct
• Shields participants from potentially
harmful procedures
• Ensures confidentiality
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
• Examines all studies proposed
 Ethical Issues in Psychological
Research
Informed Consent
• Participants must be informed of all
procedures, and any potential dangers, so they
may opt out they so desire.
Deception
• Allowable if no substantial risks are likely
Animal Studies
• Specific guidelines need to be followed.