Overhead Lines

Mechanical Design of Overhead Line

Introduction

For proper operation of overhead line, protective measures must be considered in

the invention of electrical parameters as well as for the mechanical portion.

The line should have sufficient current-carrying capacity so that the necessary
power transfer can take place without violating allowable voltage drop criterion or
overheating.

Line losses should be as low as possible and spacing between the line conductors
and with the earth should be adequate to cope up with the system voltage.

On the other hand, for the mechanical aspects, the line conductors, supports, and
the cross arm should have sufficient mechanical strength to cope with the
probable weather problems.

The mechanical design should estimate the “sag” of the conductor at its mid-span
length, as sag is to be allowed to cater the load of the conductor.

Adequate distance between the lowest point of the line and the earth must be
maintained.
Conductor Material

The conductor is one of the important objects, as most of the capital outlay is
invested for it.

The conductor material used for transmission and distribution of electric power
should possess the following properties:

1.High electrical conductivity.

2.High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical strength.

3.Low cost so that it can be used for long distance.

4.Low specific gravity so that weight per-unit volume is small.

All above requirements and specifications are not found in a single material.

Therefore, when we select a conductor material, for a particular case, a

compromise is made between the cost and the required electrical and mechanical
properties.
Commonly Used Conductor Materials

The most frequently used conductor materials for overhead lines are copper,
aluminum, steel-cored aluminum, galvanized steel, and cadmium copper.

The choice of a particular material will depend upon the cost, the required
electrical and mechanical properties, and the local conditions.
All conductors used for overhead lines are
preferably stranded, in order to increase
flexibility. In stranded conductors, there is
generally one central wire, and around this,
successive layers of wires containing 6, 12, 18,
24, and more wires.

Thus if there are n layers, the total number of

individual wire is 3n(n + 1) + 1.

In the manufacture of stranded conductors, the consecutive layers of wires are

twisted or spiraled in opposite directions so that layers are bound together.
Copper

Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines due to its high electrical
conductivity and greater tensile strength.

It is always used in the hard drawn form as stranded conductor.

Copper has high current density, that is, the current carrying capacity of copper
per unit of cross-sectional area is quite large. This leads to two advantages:

1.Smaller cross-sectional area of conductor is required.

2.The area offered by the conductor to wind load is reduced.

Moreover, this metal is quite homogeneous, durable, and has high scrap (hurda)
value.

There is no doubt that copper is an ideal material for transmission and distribution
of electric power.

However, due to its high cost and nonavailability, it is rarely used for these
purpose.

Nowadays the trend is to use aluminum in place of copper.

Aluminum

Cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much smaller conductivity
and tensile strength.

The relative comparison of the two materials is given below:

• The conductivity of aluminum is 60% that of copper. For the same resistance,
the diameter of aluminum conductor is about 1.26 times the diameter of
copper conductor. The increased cross-sectional area of aluminum exposes a
greater surface to wind pressure and, therefore, supporting towers must be
designed for greater transverse strength. This often requires the use of high
towers with consequence of greater sag.

• The specific gravity of aluminum (2.71 g/cm3) is lower than that of copper
(8.9 g/cm3).

• Aluminum conductor being light is liable to greater swings and hence larger
crossarms are required.

• Due to lower tensile strength and higher coefficient of linear expansion of

aluminum, the sag is greater in aluminum conductors.
Considering the combined properties of cost, conductivity, tensile strength,
weight, etc., aluminum has an edge over copper.

Therefore, it is being widely used as a conductor material.

It is particularly profitable to use aluminum for high current transmission,

where the conductor size is large and its cost forms a major portion of the
total cost of complete installation.
Steel-Cored Aluminum

Due to low tensile strength, aluminum conductors produce greater sag.

This prohibits their use for larger spans and makes them unsuitable for long
distance transmission.

In order to increase the tensile strength, the aluminum conductor is reinforced

with a core of galvanized steel wires.

The composite conductor thus obtained is known as steel-cored aluminum and is

abbreviated as ACSR (aluminum conductor steel reinforced).

Steel-cored aluminum
conductor consists of central
core of galvanized steel wires
surrounded by a number of
aluminum strands. Usually,
diameter of both aluminum and
steel wires is the same.
The result of this composite conductor is that steel core takes greater
percentage of mechanical strength, while aluminum conductors have the
following advantages:

•The reinforcement with steel increases the tensile strength but at the same
time keeps the composite conductor light. Therefore, steel-cored aluminum
conductors will produce smaller sag and hence larger span can be used.

•Due to smaller sag with steel-cored aluminum conductors, towers of smaller

heights can be used.
Galvanized Steel

Steel has very high tensile strength. Therefore, galvanized steel

conductors can be used for extremely long spans or for short-line
sections exposed to abnormally high stresses due to climatic
conditions.

They are found very suitable in rural areas where cost is the main
consideration.

Due to poor conductivity and high resistance of steel, such conductors

are not suitable for transmitting large power over a long distance.

However, they can be used to transmit a small power over a small

distance where the size of the desired copper conductor would be too
small and thus unsuitable for use because of poor mechanical
strength.

Nowadays, use of galvanized steel wires is limited to

telecommunication lines, stray wires, earth wires, and guard wires.
Cadmium Copper

The conductor material now being employed in certain cases is copper

alloyed with cadmium.

An addition of 1% or 2% cadmium to copper increases the tensile

strength by 50%, and the conductivity is only reduced by 15% below
that of pure copper. Therefore, cadmium copper conductor can be
useful for exceptionally long spans.

However, due to high cost of cadmium, such conductors will be

economical only for lines of small cross-sections, that is, where the
cost of conductor material is comparatively small compared with the
cost of supports.
Phosphor Bronze

When harmful gases such as ammonia are present in atmosphere and

the spans are extremely long, phosphor bronze is most suitable material
for an overhead line conductor.

In this conductor, some strands of phosphor bronze are added to the

cadmium copper.
Line Supports

The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are various types of poles
and towers called line supports.

In general, the line supports should have the following properties:

1.High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors, wind load, etc.

2.Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength.

3.Cheaper in cost.

4.Low maintenance cost.

5.Longer life.

6.Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.

The line supports used for transmission and distribution of electric power
are of various types including wooden poles, steel poles, reinforced cement
concrete (RCC) poles, and lattice steel towers.

The choice of supporting structure for a particular case depends upon the
line span, cross-sectional area, line voltage, cost, and local conditions.
Wooden Poles

These are made of seasoned wood and are suitable for lines of moderate
cross-sectional area and of relatively shorter spans, say up to 50 m.

Such supports are cheap, easily available, provide insulating properties,

and therefore are widely used for distribution purposes in rural areas as
an economical proposition.

The wooden poles generally tend to rotten below the ground level,
causing foundation failure. In order to prevent this, the portion of the
pole below the ground level is impregnated with preservative compound
like creosote oil.
Double pole structures of the “A” or “H” type are often used to obtain a higher
transverse strength than could be economically provided by means of a single pole.

The main objectives

•Tendency to rot
below the ground
level

•Comparatively
smaller life (20–25
years)

•Cannot be used for

voltages higher than
20 kV

•Less mechanical
strength

•Require periodical
inspection
Steel Poles

The steel poles are often used as a substitute wooden pole.

They posses greater mechanical strength, longer life, and permit longer
span to be used.
Generally used for distribution purposes in the cities.
These types of supports need to be galvanized or painted in order to
prolong its life.

The steel poles are of three types:

1.Rail poles
2.Tubular poles
3.Rolled steel joints
RCC (Reinforced Concrete) Poles

Usually called the concrete poles are extensively used for low- and high-
voltage distribution lines up to 33 kV.

They have greater mechanical strength, longer life, and permits longer
spans than steel poles.

Moreover, they give good outlook, require little maintenance, and have
good insulating properties.
 Figure shows RCC poles for single and double circuit. The holes in the poles facilitate
the climbing of poles and at the same time reduce the weight of line supports.

The main difficulty with the

use of these poles is the
high cost of transport owing
to their heavy weight;
therefore, such poles are
often manufactured at the
site in order to avoid heavy
cost of transmission.
Steel Towers

For long distance transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are invariably
employed which have greater mechanical strength, longer life, and can
withstand most severe climate conditions and permit the use of longer
spans.

The risk of interrupted service due to broken or punctured insulation is

considerably reduced owing to longer spans.

Tower footings are usually grounded by driving rods into the earth.

This minimizes the lightening troubles as each tower acts as a lightening

conductor.
The double circuit has the advantage that it ensures continuity of supply. In case,
there is breakdown of one circuit, the continuity of supply can be maintained by the
other circuit.
Sag in Overhead Lines

While raising an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are

under safe tension. If the conductors are stretched too much between
supports in a bid to save conductor material, the stress in the conductor
may reach unsafe value, and in certain cases, the conductor may break due
to excessive tension. In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they
are not fully stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag.

The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point on
the conductor is called sag.
Figure below shows a conductor suspended between two equilevel supports A
and B. The conductor is not fully stretched but is allowed to have a dip. The
lowest point on the conductor is O and the sag is S
The conductor sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce the
conductor material required and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient
clearance above ground level.

It is also desirable that tension in the conductor should be low to avoid the
mechanical failure of the conductor and to permit the use of less strong
supports.

However, low conductor supports and minimum sag are not possible. It is
because low sag means a tight wire and high tension, whereas low tension
means a loose wire and increased sag. Therefore, in actual practice, a
compromise is made between the two.
Effect of Wind and Ice Loading

In actual practice, a conductor may have ice coating and simultaneously

subjected to wind pressure. The weight of ice acts vertically downwards,
that is, in the same direction as the weight of conductor. The force due
to the wind is assumed to act horizontally, that is, at the right angle to
the projected surface of the conductor. Hence, the total force on the
conductor is the vector sum of horizontal and vertical forces as shown in
Figure.
Sag Template

Sag template is a suitable device, which is often used in designing a

transmission line to determine the location and height of the structures.

Sag template can be a reliable option which provides the following:

1.Economic layout
2.Minimum errors in design and layout
3.Proper grading of structures
4.Controls excessive insulator swing

Generally two types of towers are used:

1. The standard or straight run or intermediate tower

2. The angle or anchor or tension tower
For standard towers, normal or average spans, the sag and the nature of the curve
(catenary or parabola) the line conductor occupies under expected loading
conditions are evaluated and plotted on the template.
Template will also show the required minimum ground clearance by plotting a
curve parallel to the conductor shape curve.
For the standard tower and same height, the tower footing line can also be plotted
on the template. Tower footing line is used for locating the position of towers, and
minimum ground clearance is maintained throughout.

Figure below shows the sag template used for locating towers.
Stringing (germe) Chart

For use in the field work of stringing the conductors, temperature–sag and
temperature–tension charts are plotted for the given conductor and loading
conditions.

Such curves are called stringing charts (Figure). These charts are very helpful
while stringing overhead lines.
 Calculation of Sag

When Supports Are at Equal Levels

Consider a conductor between two equilevel supports A and B with O as the lowest
point as shown in Figure . It can be proved that lowest point will be at the mid-span.
When Supports Are at Unequal Levels

In hilly areas, we generally come across conductors suspended between supports at

unequal levels. Figure shows a conductor suspended between two supports A and B that
are at different levels. The lowest point on the conductor is O.
If x1 is negative, the lowest point (point O) of the imaginary curve
lies outside the actual span as shown in Figure 5.8.
Effect of Wind and Ice Loading
Overhead Line Insulators
Introduction

The overhead line conductors are open and do not have any insulated coating
over them.

Those conductors should be supported on the poles or towers in such a way

that current from conductors do not flow to earth through supports, that is,
line conductors must be properly insulated.

This is accomplished by connecting line conductors to a support with the help

of insulators.

The insulator provides necessary insulation between line conductors and

supports and thus prevents any leakage current from conductors to ground.

Insulators also provide support to the conductor.

In general, the insulator should have the following desirable properties:

•High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load, etc.

•High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid leakage

current to earth.

•High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric strength

is high.

•The insulator material should be nonporous (gözeneksiz), free from impurities

(kirlilik), otherwise permittivity will be lowered.

•High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.

Insulator Materials

The following three materials are widely used in the manufacture of insulator units:

Porcelain
Glass
Synthetic resin

The most commonly used materials for overhead line is porcelain. Porcelain is a
ceramic material. It is mechanically stronger than glass, gives less trouble from
leakage, and is less affected by temperature change.

Glass is also used as an insulator material instead of porcelain. However, glass

insulators are mainly used for EHV AC and DC systems. Major drawback : moisture
condensation is more likely on the insulator surface causing higher leakage of
current.

Synthetic insulators are mostly used in various indoor applications. They contain
compounds of silicon, rubber, resin, etc.
Types of Insulators

Pin-Type Insulators

There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor.
The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by the annealed wire
of the same material as that of the conductor.
Used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages up to 33
kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, pin-type insulators become too bulky
and hence uneconomical.
 Causes of Insulator Failure

Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical stresses.

The latter type is primarily due to line voltage and may cause breakdown of
the insulator.

The electrical breakdown (delinme) of the insulator can occur due to

flashover (şimşek) or puncture (delinme - patlama).

In flashover, an arc occurs between the line conductor and the insulator pin
(i.e., earth) and the discharge jumps across the air gaps, following shortest
distance. In this case, the insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity,
unless extreme heat produced by the arc destroys the insulator.

the arcing distance for the insulator

a+b+c
In case of puncture (delinme), the discharge occurs from conductor to pin
through the body of the insulator and the insulator is permanently
destroyed due to excessive heat. To avoid the puncture, sufficient thickness
of porcelain is provided in the insulator.

The ratio of puncture strength to flashover voltage is known as safety factor,

that is,

Safety factor of the insulator= Puncture strength / Flash−Overvoltage

It is desirable that the value of safety factor is high so that flashover takes
place before the insulator gets punctured. For pin insulators, the value of
safety factor is about 10.
Suspension Type Insulators

As the working voltage increases, the cost of pin-type insulator increases

rapidly. Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33 kV. For
high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators
shown in Figure 6.3. They consist of a number of porcelain disks connected in
series by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the
bottom end of this string, while the other end of the string is secured to the
crossarm of the tower. Each unit or disk is designed for low voltage (say 11 kV).
The number of disk would obviously depend upon the working voltage. For
instance, if the working voltage in 66 kV, then six disks in series will be
provided on the string.
Advantages

1.Cheaper than insulators for voltages beyond 33 kV.2.Each unit or

disk is designed for low voltage (say 11 kV). The number of disk would
obviously depend upon the working voltage.3.If any disk is damaged,
the whole string does not become useless because the damaged disk
can be replaced by the sound one.4.The arrangement provides greater
flexibility to the line. The connection at the crossarm is such that
insulator is free to swing in any direction and can take up the position,
where the mechanical stresses are minimum.5.The suspension type
insulators are generally used with steel towers. As the conductors run
below the earthed crossarm of the tower, therefore, this arrangement
provides partial protection from lightning.6.In case of increased
demand on the transmission line, it is found more satisfactory to
supply greater demand by raising the line voltage, than to provide
another set of conductor. The additional insulation required for the
raised voltage can be easily obtained in the suspension arrangement
by adding the desired number of disks.
Types of Suspension Insulators

The types of suspension insulators in use are1.Cap-and-pin

type2.Hewlett or interlink type
The first type is more common. A galvanized cast iron or forged-steel
cap and galvanized forged-steel pin are connected to porcelain in the
cap-and-pin type construction. The units are joined together either by
ball and socket or clevis–pin connections. Cap-and-pin type
construction is given in Figure 6.4.
The interlink type unit (Figure 6.5) employs porcelain having two curved
channels with planes at right angles to each other. U-shaped level
covered steel links pass through these channels and serve to connect the
units. Interlink type insulator is mechanically stronger than the cap-and-
pin type unit. The metal links continue to support the line if the porcelain
between the links breaks. Thus, the supply is not interrupted. The Hewlett
type of insulator suffers from the disadvantage that the porcelain
between links is highly stressed electrically and, therefore, its puncture
strength is lesser as compared to other types.
Strain Insulators

When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the
line is subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive
tension, strain insulators are used. For low-voltage lines (<11 kV), shackle
insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high-voltage
transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension
lines; strain insulator consists of an assembly of suspension insulators as
shown in Figure 6.6. The disks of strain insulators are used in the vertical
plane. When the tension in the line is exceeding high, as at long river
spans, two or more strings are used in parallel.
Shackle Insulators

In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But
now a days, they are frequently used for low-voltage distribution lines
(<11 kV). Such insulators can be used either in horizontal position or in
vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to
the crossarm. Figure 6.7 shows a shackle insulator fixed to the pole. The
conductor in the groove is fixed with a soft binding wire.
Stay Insulators

These kind of insulators are of egg shape, also called strain or guy
insulators, and are used in guy cables, where it is very important to
insulate the lower portion of the guy cable from the pole for the
safety of human beings and animals on the ground. This type of
insulator comprises of a porcelain piece pierced with two holes at
right angles to each other through which two ends of the guy wires
are looped. This compresses the porcelain between the two loops in
and the guy wire remains in the same position even if the insulator
breaks due to any reason. Figure 6.8 shows a stay insulator.