21/ 02/ 2016

Anatomi Neurology
Abu Bakar

The nervous system consists of two

divisions
1. the central nervoussystem (CNS):
1. the brain.
2. the spinal cord.
2. the peripheral nervous system:
1. the cranial
2. the spinal nerves.
3. the autonomic nervous system

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1. The Brain
The brain is divided into three major areas:
1. the cerebrum
2. the brain stem
3. the cerebellum

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1. The Brain
1. the cerebrum
A. the hemispheres
B. the thalamus,
C. the hypothalamus,
D. the basal ganglia.

1.1.1. the cerebrum

A. the hemispheres
a) consists of two hemispheres, separated by the
great longitudinal fissure, the right and left
hemispheres.
b) The two hemispheres are joined at the lower
portion of the fissure by the corpus callosum

The corpus callosum is a thick collection of nerve fibers

that connects the two hemispheres of the brain and is
responsible for the transmission of information from one
side of the brain to the other. Information transferred
includes sensation, memory, and learned discrimination.

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c) are divided into pairs of frontal, parietal,

temporal, and occipital lobes.
Frontal the largest lobe.The major
functions of this lobe are
concentration, abstract thought,
information storage or memory, and
motor function.
It also contains Broca’s area, critical for motor
control of speech.The frontal lobeis also
responsible in large part for an individual’s
affect, judgment, personality, andinhibitions.

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c).Lobes
Parietal a predominantly sensory lobe.The
primary sensory cortex, which
analyzes sensory information and
relays the interpretation of this
information to the thalamus and
other cortical areas, is located in
the parietal lobe.
It is also essential to an individual’s awareness of
the body in space, as well as orientation in
space and spatial relations.

c).Lobes
Temporal contains the auditory receptive
areas. Contains a vital area called
the interpretive area that provides
integration of somatization, visual,
and auditory areas and plays the
most dominant role of any area of
the cortex in cerebration.
Occipital the posterior lobe of the cerebral
hemisphere is responsible for
visual interpretation.

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1.1.1. the cerebrum

B. the thalamus
lies on either side of the third ventricle and acts
primarily as a relay station for all sensation
except smell.All memory, sensation, and pain
impulses also pass through this section of the
brain.

1.1.1. the cerebrum

C. the hypothalamus,
The hypothalamus plays an important role in
the endocrine system because it regulates the
pituitary secretion of hormones that influence
metabolism, reproduction,stress response,and
urine production. It works with the pituitary to
maintain fluid balance and maintains
temperature regulation by promoting
vasoconstriction or vasodilatation.

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C. Hypo....
The hypothalamus is the site of the
hunger center and is involved in appetite
control. It contains centers that regulate
the sleep–wake cycle, blood pressure,
aggressive and sexual behavior, and
emotional responses (ie, blushing, rage,
depression, panic, and fear).The
hypothalamus also controls and regulates
the autonomic nervous system.

1.1.1. the cerebrum

D. the basal ganglia.
are masses of nuclei located deep in the
cerebral hemispheres that are responsible for
control of fine motor movements, including
those of the hands and lower extremities.

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1.1. The Brain

1.1.2. the brain stem
A. the midbrain,
B. Pons
C. Medulla

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1.1.2. the brain stem

A. the midbrain
The midbrain connects the pons and the
cerebellum with the cerebral hemispheres; it
contains sensory and motor pathways and
serves as the center for auditory and visual
reflexes.
Cranial nerves III and IV originate in the
midbrain.

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1.1.2. the brain stem

B. Pons
The pons is situated in front of the cerebellum
between the midbrain and the medulla and is a
bridge between the two halves of the
cerebellum, and between the medulla and the
cerebrum.
Cranial nerves V through VIII connect to the
brain in the pons. The pons contains motor and
sensory pathways.
Portions of the pons also control the heart,
respiration, and blood pressure.

1.1.2. the brain stem

C. Medulla
The medulla oblongata contains motor fibers
from the brain to the spinal cord and sensory
fibers from the spinal cord to the brain.
Most of these fibers cross, or decussate,at this
level.
Cranial nerves IX through XII connect to the
brain in the medulla.

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1. The Brain
3. the cerebellum
◦ is located under the cerebrum and behind the
brain stem
◦ The cerebellum has both excitatory and
inhibitory actions and is largely responsible
for coordination of movement.
◦ It also controls fine movement, balance,
position sense (awareness of where each part
of the body is), and integration of sensory
input.

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STRUCTURES PROTECTING THE BRAIN

1. The major bones of the skull are the

frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital
bones.These bones join at the suture lines
2. The meninges (fibrous connective tissues
that cover the brain and spinal cord)
provide protection, support, and
nourishment to the brain and spinal cord.

The layers of the meninges are the dura, arachnoid,

and pia mater

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PROTECTING
3. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) a clear and
colorless fluid, is circulated around the
brain and the spinal cord through the
ventricular system.
is produced in the choroid plexus of the
lateral, third, and fourth ventricles,
approximately 125 to 150 mL of fluid
Absorbed by the arachnoid villi.
The composition of CSF is similar to other
extracellular fluids (such as blood plasma)

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PROTECTING
4. The cerebral circulation receives approximately
15% of the cardiac output, or 750 mL per minute.

The brain does not store nutrients and has a high

metabolic demand that requires the high blood flow.
The brain’s blood pathway is unique because it flows
against gravity; its arteries fill from below and the veins
drain from above.
In contrast to other organs that may tolerate decreases
in blood flow because of their adequate collateral
circulation, the brain lacks additional collateral blood
flow, which may result in irreversible tissue damage
when blood flow is occluded for even short periods of
time.

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PROTECTING
5. Blood-Brain Barrier,This barrier is formed
by the endothelial cells of the brain’s
capillaries, which form continuous tight
junctions, creating a barrier to
macromolecules and many compounds.
Often altered by trauma, cerebral edema, and
cerebral hypoxemia, the blood–brain barrier
has implications in the treatment and selection
of medication for CNS disorders as well as
serving a protective function.

1.2. the spinal cord.

The spinal cord and medulla form a
continuous structure extending from the
cerebral hemispheres and serving as the
connection between the brain and the
periphery.
Approximately 45 cm (18 in) long and about
the thickness of a finger, it extends from the
foramen magnum at the base of the skull to
the lower border of the first lumbar
vertebra, where it tapers to a fibrous band
called the conus medullaris.

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Spinal ......
The spinal cord is an H-shaped structure with
nerve cell bodies (gray matter) surrounded by
ascending and descending tracts (white matter)
Sensory and Motor Pathways:The Spinal Tracts.
The white matter of the cord is composed of
myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers.The
fast-conducting myelinated fibers form bundles
that also contain glial cells. Fiber bundles with a
common function are called tracts.
Vertebral Column.The bones of the vertebral
column surround and protect the spinal cord and
normally consist of 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5
lumber vertebrae, as well as the sacrum (a fused
mass of five vertebrae), and terminate in the
coccyx.

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2.1. the cranial

There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves that emerge
from the lower surface of the brain and pass
through the foramina in the skull.
Three are entirely sensory (I, II,VIII), five are
motor (III, IV,VI,XI, and XII), and four are mixed
(V,VII, IX, and X) as they have both sensory and
motor functions.
The cranial nerves are numbered in the order in
which they arise from the brain.
For example, cranial nerves I and II attach in the
cerebral hemispheres, whereas cranial nerves IX,
X, XI, and XII attach at the medulla.
Most cranial nerves innervate the head, neck, and
special sense structures.

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2.2. the spinal nerves

The spinal cord is composed of 31 pairs of spinal nerves: 8
cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal.
Each spinal nerve has a ventral root and a dorsal root.
The dorsal roots are sensory and transmit sensory impulses
from specific areas of the body known as dermatomes to the
dorsal ganglia.
The sensory fiber may be somatic, carrying information
about pain, temperature, touch, and position sense
(proprioception) from the tendons, joints, and body surfaces;
or visceral, carrying information from the internal organs.
The ventral roots are motor and transmit impulses from the
spinal cord to the body.
These fibers are also either somatic or visceral.
The visceral fibers include autonomic fibers that control the
cardiac muscles and glandular secretions.

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2.3. the autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system regulates the
activities of internal organs such as the heart, lungs,
blood vessels, digestive organs, and glands.
Maintenance and restoration of internal homeostasis
is largely the responsibility of the autonomic nervous
system.
There are two major divisions: the sympathetic
nervous system, and the parasympathetic nervous
system.
The autonomic nervous system innervates most body
organs.
Although usually considered part of the peripheral
nervous system, it is regulated by centers in the spinal
cord, brain stem, and hypothalamus.

the sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system is best
known for its role in the body’s “fight-or-flight” response.
Under stress conditions from either physical or emotional causes,
sympathetic impulses increase greatly.
As a result, the bronchioles dilate for easier gas exchange; the
heart’s contractions are stronger and faster; the arteries to the
heart and voluntary muscles dilate, carrying more blood to these
organs; peripheral blood vessels constrict, making the skin feel cool
but shunting blood to essential organs; the pupils dilate; the liver
releases glucose for quick energy; peristalsis slows; hair stands on
end; and perspiration increases.
The sympathetic neurotransmitter is norepinephrine
(noradrenaline), and this increase in sympathetic discharge is the
same as if the body has been given an injection of adrenalin—
hence, the term adrenergic is often used to refer to this division.

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the parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system functions as the
dominant controller for most visceral effectors.
During quiet, nonstressful conditions, impulses from
parasympathetic fibers (cholinergic) predominate.
The fibers of the parasympathetic system are located in
two sections, one in the brain stem and the other from
spinal segments below L2.
Because of the location of these fibers, the
parasympathetic system is referred to as the
craniosacral division, as distinct from the thoracolumbar
(sympathetic) division of the autonomic nervous
system.

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TRIMAKASIH

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