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Explosives

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 explosives
 Explosives are chemical compounds or mixtures which can rapidly change into other systems or
substances under the influence of some external impulse, such as spark, impact, or heating,
liberating great quantities of heat and gases. These causes disintegration of the material surrounding
the charge.
Components of explosive
Explosive components are referred to as:
 Oxidizers: used to provide the required oxygen. Oxidizers contribute oxygen for oxygen balance,
and include nitrated salts such as ammonium nitrate (AN), sodium nitrate (SN), and calcium nitrate
(CN).
 Fuels: to sustain the reaction include fuel oil, carbon, granular aluminum, TNT, black powder,
Sulphur, charcoal or any carbonaceous material that produces heat. Many of these components are
also referred to as sensitizers and can also act as absorbents.
 absorbents, are products, such as wood pulp, sawdust, cotton, and
cellulose, that incorporate liquid explosive components such as
nitroglycerin.
 Stabilizers: include flame retardants, gelatins, densifiers, water, gum,
emulsifying agents, and thickeners.
 sensitizer; to promote the explosive reaction Nitro-glycerin, TNT, voids and bubbles.

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 Cont…

(stabilizers)

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 Properties of explosive
 The most important characteristics of an explosive are:
Velocity of detonation (VOD)
 detonation pressure
 Strength
 Detonation Stability
 Sensitiveness (propagation ability)
 Sensitivity
 Density
 Water resistance
Safety in handling
 Environmental properties
 Oxygen balance
 Storage life 5
1. THE VELOCITY OF DETONATION (VOD)
 VOD is the spread at which the detonation travels through the explosive. The high velocity is
necessary to give the powerful impact at detonation which is required to cause the tensile
stresses which break the rock.
 The velocity of explosives is usually expressed in "Thousands of meter per second".
Dynamites are available in a wide range of velocities, from about 1,200 meter per
second to over 6,000 meter per second. Some explosives have velocities as high as about
10,000 meter per second.
 The higher velocity explosives produce sharper detonations with more "Shattering" action.
 The lower the velocity the more "Heaving or Lifting" action an explosive will have.
Generally
 The high velocity explosives are used where a fast, shattering, fragmenting or cutting
action is desired, and
 The lower velocity products where objects for large quantities of loose materials are to be
moved or lifted without the need of extensive fragmentation.
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 2, Detonation pressure
 The detonation pressure is the maximum theoretical pressure achieved
within the reaction zone and measured at the C-J plane in a column of
explosives.
 it is the near instantaneous pressure derived from the shock wave moving
through the explosive compound.
 it is the pressure exerted by the by the detonation wave propagated through
the explosive column.

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 3. Strength
 Strength refers to the energy content of an explosive & the ability of the explosive
to do work, and is dependent upon the volume of gas which is liberated during the
explosion.
 It is a measure of the power and force it will develop.
 bulk strength and weight strength are the two terminologies used a manufacturer to
identify the strength.
 Absolute bulk strength (ABS) in calories per cubic centimeter and absolute weight
strength (AWS) in calories per gram are computed from the heat liberated during the
detonation and formation of gaseous end products.
 Note ABS and AWS can be computed from one another if density is known, and it is the
volumetric basis of reaction heat which correlates with energy.
 For a typical density of 0.85 and an AWS of 850 cal/g, the ABS =
(850 cal/g) (0.85) = 723 cal/cm3. (ANFO)
 AWS=ABS/density means that ABS=AWS*Density

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 cont
Example 1 Determine the relative strengths of explosives A (ABS 645
cal/cm3 and density of 0.8) and B (ABS 980 cal/cm3 and density 1.25)
 Relative Bulk Strength Relative Weight Strength

 Therefore on a volume basis, explosive A is less powerful than ANFO while

explosive B is more powerful.

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4. DETONATION STABILITY
Means that the detonation goes through the entire explosives column.
5. SENSITIVENESS OR PROPAGATION ABILITY
 Is expressed in the length of air-gap over which a donor cartridge of an explosive
will detonate a receptor cartridge under unconfined conditions.
 If the sensitiveness is low, there can interruptions in the detonation if the column
of explosive in the charged blast hole in not continuous or some obstacle has come
between the various charges.
 An explosive with too high a sensitiveness can cause propagation between
adjacent blast holes if holes are closely spaced.
 The propagation ability is higher in confined conditions than in unconfined ones.
Explosives must have a sufficient degree of sensitiveness to ensure the
complete detonation of all cartridges throughout the entire charge. In other
words, the detonating wave must be initiate all the explosives in the charge
at their intended velocity, and this obviously requires a degree of sensitiveness.
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6. SENSITIVITY
 The sensitivity of an explosive is expressed as a minimum energy needed to initiate
the explosive.
 explosive are divided into:
1. Cap sensitive explosives
2. Non-cap sensitive explosives
 The Cap-sensitive Explosives can be initiated by a # 6 or # 8 blasting cap.
 The Non-cap Sensitive Explosives need to be primed with an amount of high
explosives in order to obtain initiation and stable detonation.
NB "Sensitiveness” refers to the propagating ability of an explosive, And "Sensitivity" to
the ease with which it can be initiated.
7. DENSITY Is specific weight of an explosive expressed as kilograms per liter(Kg/l)
Grams per cubic centimetre (g/c.c).
 "Density" generally refers to the weight of an object when compared with the weight of the
same volume of water.
 The density determines the possible charge concentration in the blast hole.
LD = 0.3405 ρ (D)2 Where: ρ is density D is explosive column diameter in inches.
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 8. THE WATER RESISTANCE
 Is an explosive’s ability to withstand water penetration and is normally expressed as the
time the product can be underwater and still detonate reliably.

 Explosives which have no inherent water resistance properties can be used in water filled blast
holes if proper packaging material, such as plastic bags, are used.
9. SAFETY IN HANDLING
 Is of the most importance as the transportation and usage of an explosive should be
carried out with out any risks for the personnel involved.
 Before an explosive is approve by the authorities it is subjected to extensive tests.
1. The drop hammer test determine the height from which a weight fall on the explosive in
order to create a detonation.
2. The friction test, in which friction under increased pressure is applied to a small amount
of explosive.
3. The projectile impact test determines the bullet velocity needed to reaction in the
explosive.
4. The heat test determines how much heat an explosive can withstand before a reaction
starts
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 10. THE ENVIROMENTAL PROPRTIES
 The environmental properties are more and more taken into consideration.
 The aim is to minimize the toxic fumes and such negative side-effects as headaches and skin irritation
when handling nitroglycerin explosives.
 For “open-pit (quarry)” operations toxic fumes rarely create any problem, but for underground operations,
it is essential that toxious gases are kept to an acceptable level.
11. OXYGEN BALANCE
 The Oxygen balance must be considered in underground applications.
 An excess of oxygen in the explosive can form nitrogen oxides (No and No2) and a deficit of oxygen will form
carbon monoxide (CO).
 In open air blasting these gases rarely cause any problem as the blasting fumes are rapidly dispersed after the
detonation
 A simpler method of calculating oxygen balance for explosives that contain only carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and
oxygen, is given by:
.

Where CxHyNzOw
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 Cont…
 Calculation of oxygen balance: Oxygen balance can be determined by following
the steps outlined below:
• Write the molecular formula and molecular weight.
• Find number of C, O, H and nitrogen atoms.
• Remove two oxygen atoms/carbon atom (CO2); and half oxygen per hydrogen
atom (H2O formation).
• Leave nitrogen atom as nitrogen molecule (N2).
 Note, how much oxygen is left behind (+). If not then calculate how much
oxygen is required (—).

• Where as a, b, c, and d are the number of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen
atoms in the explosive substance.

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 Cont…
Example: To calculate oxygen balance of the fuel oil.
Formula: CH2 Molecular weight = 12 + 2 = 14 the values are a = 1, b = 2, c = 0,
d=0 (0 - 0.5 × 2 - 2 × 1) = -3 atoms of oxygen.
14 g of diesel oil require 48 g of oxygen, so 1 gm of diesel oil will require =
-48/14 = -3.43
So, oxygen balance of fuel oil is -3.43.
Similarly calculation of oxygen balance of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).
• Molecular weight = (14 + 4 + 14 + 48) = 80
a = 0, b = 4, c = 2, d = 3
• Oxygen balance = (d - 0.5b - 2a)O2 = (3 - 0.5 × 4 - 2 × 0) = 1 atom of oxygen
80 gms of ammonium nitrate gives 16 gms of oxygen,
So 1 gm of ammonium nitrate will give = 16/80 = 0.2 gms of oxygen.
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 Cont…
• For ANFO to be oxygen balanced: AN × 0.2 + fuel oil × (-3.4) = 0 Let, AN be
y%
0.2 y + (100 - y)(- 3.4) = 0
Or 3.6 y = 340; or y = 94.5
• Thus, an oxygen balancing ANFO should contain 5.5% fuel oil and 94.5%
ammonium nitrate.
Q2 Calculate the oxygen balance of PETN ( C5H8N4O12 ).
Q3 Determine the oxygen balance for nitroglycerin, C3H5N3O9.

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12. The shelf life (storage life)
Storage life of explosive is very important as the explosive frequently has to be
kept for a long time in storage, often under unfavourable conditions.
 Plastic nitro-glycerine explosives should not be stored in high
temperatures.
 Storage temperatures around +32oc should be avoided, especially if the
temperature fluctuates around that figure.
 Powder type explosives in cartridge are sensitive to moisture.

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 Classification of explosive
 Detonation occurs when the rate of reaction in the explosive product exceeds the
speed of sound (sonic velocity) in the product,
 Thus creating a shockwave.
Detonation velocities for commercial explosives range from 1,500 to 7,830 m/s,
which is much higher than the sonic velocities.
 Deflagration is a process where the reaction occurs at rates much lower than the
sonic velocity of the explosive material,
 so that no shock (primary pressure wave) is produced within the explosive material.
 Explosives are classified in to three
 low explosive
 High explosive
 Blasting agent

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 1, Low explosive
 Low explosives are explosive materials that can be caused to deflagrate
when confined (e.g., black powder, smokless powder, safety fuses, igniter
cords, fuse lighters, and “display fireworks”)
 they simply burn do not explode rapidly
 Designed to burn or deflagrate
 Used for military and civilian applications
 Burning begins at one end of the charge and travels with blinding speed
through the entire charge.
 Primarily used as a propellant.
 The distinction between high and low explosives by regulatory authorities
closely follows the scientific definition; that is, high explosives detonate and
low explosives deflagrate
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Black Powder
• Velocity of Detonation (VOD) –
1,312 ft/s.
• Composed of either potassium nitrate
or sodium nitrate, charcoal, and
sulfur.
• History – Thought to originate in
China in the 9th century for fireworks
and signals. Also evidence of use in
England around 1242 and by Arabs
around 1300.
Smokeless Powder
 VOD – Similar to black powder
 Composed of nitrocellulose,
nitroglycerine, and various stabilizers.
 Currently makes up all of the low
explosives used for propellants. Can
be found in the form of flakes, strips,
sheets, balls, or cords.
 History – Was perfected in 1884 and
first put to military use by the French.
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2,High explosives
 High explosives Explosive materials that can be caused to detonate by
means of a blasting cap when unconfined (e.g., dynamite)
 High explosives are the chemical mixture that can be detonated with a #8
strength blasting cap, and liberates gas, heat and great pressure.
 High explosives are characterized by:
 high velocity of detonation (1,500-7,500 m/s).
 high pressure shock wave
 high density
 being cap sensitive
 high explosives are classified in to
1. Primary high explosive
2. Secondary high explosive
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 Primary high explosive
 Deliver an extremely sharp shock to the explosive and breaks the
bonds of the molecules of the material and oxidizers. This initiates the
explosion.
 Extremely sensitive to shock, friction, flame, heat or any
combination.
 Used in blasting caps
 Types of primary high explosives.
Lead Azide – VOD – 16,745 ft/s, Lead Styphnate – VOD – 17,000
ft/s.
 Mercury Fulminate – VOD – 14,780 ft/s, Diazodinitrophenel
(DDNP) – VOD – 21,700 ft/s.
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 Secondary high explosive
 Relatively insensitive
 Secondary explosives normally require at least a primary explosive for initiation
 Manufactured for military and commercial use
 types of secondary high explosive
TNT
 Dynamite
 RDX
 ANFO
 TNT
• VOD-22,600 feet per second
• Very stable among high explosives
• Relatively insensitive to blows or friction
• Used as booster charge for high explosives
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 3, Blasting agents
• Blasting agents Materials that can be detonated but are not a detonator (e.g.,
ANFO and certain water gels)
• these explosive products have relatively lower sensitivity than other high
explosives.
• This classification includes any mixture consisting of an Oxidiser and a
fuel which is intended for blasting.
• The final mixed product cannot be detonated by a No. 8 strength blasting cap
when unconfined.
• blasting agents are explosive products that cannot be detonated by a Number
8 blasting cap. A Number 8 blasting cap is defined as one having 0.4 to 0.45
g of PETN(Penta Erythritol tetra nitrate) base charge.
• blasting agents are not “cap sensitive.”
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 Classification of explosive
 Explosives can also be classified according to their packaging:
1. Cartridge explosives
2. Bulk explosives
1. Cartridge explosives must be smaller in diameter than the hole.
Therefore, until tamped, they will not fill the hole.
2. Bulk explosives come in bulk containers and are less labour intensive
during loading. They also fill the entire whole diameter, making them
more efficient to use. E.g. ANFO

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Transportation’s classification of explosives

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 Industrial explosive

 Industrial explosives are classified as one of the

following:
 nitroglycerin-based,
 dry blasting agents,
 wet blasting agent
 permissibles, (for underground coal)
 primers, and boosters.
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 NG based explosive
• Nitroglycerin: It is produced by the reaction of glycerin and nitric acid. It is an
oily fluid. It is so sensitive that by shock of any nature it can explode. To make
it suitable for its industrial use either it must be absorbed in an inert material
or it must be gelatinized. Explosive containing NG, are available three
consistencies: Gelatinous, semi- gelatinous and powdery. Higher NG contents
renders explosives gelatinous; lower NG content up to 10% powdery. NG
based explosives can be divided into three classes:
• Dynamites (straight dynamite, ammonia dynamite)
• Blasting gelatin
• Semi gelatin.

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 Nitroglycerin-based Explosives
 Dynamite is a trade name introduced by Alfred Nobel is powerful mix of nitroglycerin
(nitrostarch).
 Dynamites are packaged in cylindrical cartridges from (22 mm) in diameter and 8 to 24 in. (203
to 610 mm) in length. The quality of the waxed paper wrapping is important for:
• water resistance,
• fume production,
• ease and safety of loading.
 Straight dynamite derives its energy source from NG, SN, with no AN, including absorbants
such as wood pulp and flour that also act as combustibles.
 Ammonia dynamite (or "extra" dynamite) is a granular mix that contains a smaller quantity of
NG mixed with AN and SN.
 Gelatins and semi gelatins contain nitrocotton that combines with NG to form a gel structure
whose consistency is controlled by the percentage of nitrocellulose.
 Gelatin dynamites are either straight gelatin or ammonium (extra) gelatin. Each has similar
mixtures as straight and ammonia (extra) dynamites with the addition of nitrocellulose for a gel
consistency.
 Semi gelatins are ammonia gelatin with a small amount of nitrocellulose and a 65% weight
strength. They are also used as primers and boosters. Often used in wet conditions and small hole
diameter.

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 Dry Blasting Agents
 Dry blasting agents are one form of a general category of blasting agents. A blasting agent is, by
definition, a mixture of fuel and oxidizer. cannot be detonated with a No.8 blasting cap.
 A dry agent is a granular, free-running mix of a solid oxidizer (usually AN),
prilled into porous pellets onto which a liquid fuel oil or propellant is
absorbed.
 ANFO is the most widely used blasting product, with approximately
94.5% industrial-grade ammonia nitrate and 5.5% fuel oil.
 The properties of dry blasting agents vary significantly with borehole diameter, density, confinement,
particle size, water conditions, and size of primer used for initiation.
ANFO
 the mixture of about 94% ammonium nitrate prills and 6% fuel oil represents the simplest
form of combination of Oxidizer and fuel to create an explosive.
 It is by far the cheapest explosive available.
 Ammonium Nitrate is extensively used as a component of other Nitro-glycerine based explosives,
as well as being the main constituent of ANFO, slurries and very recently emulsions.

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 cont
 OIL ADDITION:- Ammonium Nitrate is an Oxidiser and for each molecule of NH4NO3
there is an excess of one atom of oxygen.
A Varity of oils could be used but fuel oil is cheap and common. 5.7% of fuel oil (diesel) is the
optimum amount.
Excess oil gives an Oxygen deficiency with a consequent loss of explosive performance.
With too little oil an excess of Oxygen is developed causing a reduced velocity of detonation
and a reduced energy of reaction.
Too much FO increases the production of carbonmonoxide and too little increases the
proportion of oxides of nitrogen
 ANFO cannot be initiated on its own by heat, shock or by a detonator. It must be detonated
by a primer, a cartridge of high explosive with detonator and the detonation pressure of the
primer should be greater than that of the ANFO.
 Due to its cheapness, ease and safety of both transport and site manufacture ANFO is the most used
bulk explosive in surface mining (Quarrying).
 BUT it has two limitations:
• It is not cap sensitive
• It has no water resistance.
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 Wet Blasting Agents
 Blasting agents that contain more than 5% water by weight are referred to
as wet blasting agents. Within this category are:
 water gels or slurries,
 emulsions, and
 heavy ANFO.
 The development of wet blasting agents, led by slurries in the 1950s, came
about in response to the disadvantages of ANFO in certain applications. These
were:
1. lack of water resistance
2. low bulk strength due to low density

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Slurries
 Slurries, or water gels, are a colloidal suspension of solid AN particles
suspended in a liquid AN solution that is gelled, using cross-linking
agents.
 The gels (guar gum) effectively surround the solid AN, rendering the
oxidizer water resistant while thickening the explosive mix.
 Granular aluminum, added as a sensitizer, increases weight and bulk
strength. Up to 18% aluminum by weight has been found to provide
increased energy output. In general, 20% water is used.
Slurries are characterized by:
 excellent water resistance,
high density and bulk strength,
good oxygen balance, confinement, and coupling within the borehole.

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 Emulsions
 Emulsion: A suspension of small globules of one liquid in a second liquid with which the first
will not mix.
Emulsions are a two-liquid phase containing microscopic droplets of aqueous nitrates of salts
(chiefly AN) dispersed in fuel oil, wax, or paraffin using an emulsifying agent.
 Emulsions provide high detonation pressures of 1.45 to 1.74 x 106 psi (10 to
12 GPa). Densities range from 1.15 to 1.45. Emulsions have excellent water resistant properties
regardless of packaging. The cost of emulsion products is within the range for slurries.
 Emulsions can be mixed on site and pumped from bulk trucks. Premixed emulsions are available
in plastic tubes in a variety of diameters and lengths.
Heavy ANFO
Heavy ANFO is a product comprised of up to 45 to 50% ammonium nitrate emulsion mixed with
prilled ANFO.
 It was developed in an attempt to increase the bulk density of ANFO. The only fuel component is in
the ANFO (or a liquid fuel), while the emulsion contains no solid fuel, making the mixture a
"repumpable" consistency.
 The final product has improved strength and provides good water resistance in comparison to ANFO,
with a price range between that of ANFO and emulsions.

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 Primers and Boosters
A primer charge is an explosive ignited by an initiator, which, in turn, initiates a non cap-sensitive explosive or
blasting agent.
 primer is an explosive unit which contain initiator.
 A primer contains cap-sensitive high explosive ingredients. Often cartridges of dynamites highly sensitized
slurries, or emulsions are used with blasting caps or detonating cord.
 Other primers are cast into specific shapes and weights, using TNT and PETN, designed with wells for
initiator acceptance.
 Boosters are highly sensitized explosives or blasting agents, used either in bulk form or in packages of
weights greater than those used for primers.
 booster is an explosive unit of higher energy than the borehole charge, and does not contain firing device.
 Boosters are placed within the explosive column where additional breaking energy is required.
 Often-times, cartridge or plastic-bagged dynamites or sensitized wet blasting agents are used as primers as
well as boosters.
 Boosters are often used near the bottom of the blast hole at the toe level as an additional charge for excessive
toe burden distances.
 Boosters are also placed within the explosive column adjacent to geological zones that are difficult to break or
intermittently within the main explosive charge to ensure
continuous detonation.
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6, ohm meter
7, exploder

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 Initiators and Initiation Systems
 Initiators are devices containing high explosives that, upon receiving an appropriate
mechanical, or electrical impulse, produce a detonation or burning action.
 Initiators are used as components within a system of explosives and other devices to start
the detonation of all other components.
 cap-and-fuse initiators - electric detonators - shock tube initiators = dominant according
time
 Three basic types of initiation systems are available for use in commercial blasting:
 electric,
 nonelectric, and
 Electronic
Electric initiation system
• Electrical energy (ac or dc) is sent through copper or iron leg wires to heat an internal
connecting bridge wire. This heat, in turn, starts chain reaction of explosives burning within
the metal cap shell, through a powder delay train.
• This process detonates a high-explosive base charge, igniting a cap-sensitive explosive.
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 Electronic
 Electronic detonators utilize microchip technology to provide delays for blast designs.
 Most electronic detonators consist of wires, a detonator shell that looks similar to electric and
nonelectric detonators, a microchip, a capacitor or capacitors, and a primer charge/base charge
similar to electric and nonelectric detonators.
 The difference between electronic and electric detonators is the replacement of the pyrotechnic-
delay element by a microchip.
System Comparisons
 Electric detonators and nonelectric shock-tube detonators are manufactured with several delay times.
 There are two delay series: millisecond (MS) series and long-period (LP) series
 The MS series usually consists of 20 to 40 delay detonators having a separation of 25 ms between
each two successive delay periods
The LP series detonators, most manufacturers have approximately 20 LP delays with varying
times between delay numbers.
The time between delay numbers for LP systems is between 200 and 400 ms but varies with the
manufacturer.