Chapter 11: Intelligence

" The ability to carry out abstract thinking." (Terman, 1921)

"The capacity to acquire capacity." (Woodrow, 1921)
"A global concept that involves an individual's ability to act
purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the
environment."
(Wechsler, 1958)
"A person possesses intelligence insofar as he had learned, or can
learn, to adjust himself to his environment."
(Colvin, cited in Sternberg, 1982)
"Intelligence is the ability to use optimally limited resources -
including time - to achieve goals."
(Kurzweil, 1999)
"Intelligence is what you do when you don't know what to do."
(unknown)
 What is Intelligence?
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to:
1.learn from experience
2. solve problems
3. use our knowledge to adapt to new
situations.
In research studies, intelligence is
whatever the intelligence test measures.
This tends to be “school smarts.”
 Intelligence
Do we have an inborn general
mental capacity (intelligence) or can
it be taught?
Can we quantify this capacity as a
meaningful number?
 Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?
Is intelligence a single ability that manifests itself in
multiple ways? Some people have more of it and
those people are better at what they decide to do.
- If so all tests of ability for a single person
should correlate positively with each other.
- Some people seem to be good at everything,
others struggle with every thing.
- In school: many students seem to stay close to
their average regardless of the subject (Are you
usually a B student? a C student?)
OR
 Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?

Are there multiple intelligences that are

independent of one another, such that people
who are artistically gifted may not be verbally
gifted?
- A person may have a gift for music or
art but struggle with math or history.
- Savant Syndrome (Rainman)
- If so, does everyone necessarily have to
have a strength?
Intelligence: Single or Multiple?
Is intelligence one general ability or several specific
abilities?
Charles Spearman general intelligence [g]

Louis Thurstone 7 linked clusters of abilities

Howard Gardner 8 intelligences

Robert Sternberg 3 intelligences

Creativity and
5 components
intelligence
Emotional intelligence 4 components
Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it
several specific abilities?
– To find out scientists use FACTOR ANALYSIS = a
statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related
items on a test. i.e. A technique that determines how
different variables relate to each other; for example
whether they form clusters that tend to vary
together.
Intelligence Test
•e one’s total score.  Verbal ability – excel at verbal
fluency, remembering words,
spelling, comprehension, etc
Personality Test
 Extraversion – describe
themselves as liking
excitement, practical jokes,
and disliking quiet reading
 Spearman: General Intelligence
General
Intelligence (g) =
a single, overall
intelligence
factor that
underlies all
mental abilities
and is therefore
measured by
every task on an
intelligence test
Thurstone’s Seven Clusters of Abilities
 Louis Thurstone (1887- 1. Verbal
1955) disagreed with the comprehension
idea of one general 2. Inductive
measure and trait of reasoning
overall intelligence.
 Thurstone found that the 3. Word fluency
results of 56 skill tests fell 4. Spatial ability
into 7 clusters. 5. Memory
 However, further analysis
showed that people who 6. Perceptual speed
were strong in one cluster 7. Numerical ability
tended to be strong in
other clusters.
 Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner also disagreed with Spearman’s
“g” and proposed a theory of multiple intelligences.
According to this
definition, both
Einstein and Ruth
are intelligent

Speculates about 9th intelligence - existential

intelligence (the ability to think about the question of
life, death and existence)
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
 Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Sternberg simplifies Gardner and suggests
three intelligences rather than eight:
1. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed
by intelligence tests (academic problem solving)
2. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us
adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.
3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for
everyday tasks, where multiple solutions exist (e.g.
street smarts).
Sternberg summarizes: “So basically what I’ve said is there are
different ways to be smart but ultimately what you want to do
is take the components, apply them to your experience, and use
them to adapt to, select, and shape your environment .
 Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity: is the ability to produce ideas that are both
novel and valuable.

Convergent thinking - thinking that involves

following a series of logical steps with the goal of
arriving at the “correct” answer.
Divergent thinking – thinking used to generate
creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions;
spontaneous, unorganized thought.
Creative people generate new, unexpected ideas first
through divergent thought. Ideas are then organized
using convergent thought.
Sternberg identified five components of
divergent thinkers and creativity.
1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.
2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see
things in novel ways.
3. Adventuresome Personality: A personality
that seeks new experiences rather than
following the pack.
4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be
creative from within.
5. A Creative Environment: A creative and
supportive environment allows creativity to
bloom.
 Imaginative
Expertise: A well-developed
Thinking:
knowledge base.
The ability to
see things in
novel ways.

Creative
Environment: creativity
A creative and
supportive
environment Venturesome
allows Personality: A
creativity to personality that
bloom. seeks new
experiences with
perseverance.
Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be
creative from within.
Social and Emotional Intelligence
Emotional
intelligence
Social involves
intelligence refers processing and
to the ability to managing the
understand and emotional
navigate social component of
situations. those social
situations,
including one’s
own emotions.
 Components of Benefits of
Emotional
Emotional Intelligence Intelligence

Perceiving emotions People with high

•Recognizing emotions in facial
expressions, stories, and even in
music
Understanding emotions
•Being able to see blended emotions,
and to predict emotional states and
changes in self and others
Managing emotions
•Modulating and expressing
emotions in various situations
Using emotions
•Using emotions as fuel and
motivation for creative, adaptive
thinking
emotional intelligence
often have other
beneficial traits, such
as the ability to delay
gratification while
pursuing long-term
goals.
The level of emotional
intelligence, including
the skill of reading the
emotions of others,
correlates with
success in career
and other social
situations.
 Emotional Intelligence: Criticism

Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotional

intelligence and question whether we stretch this
idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our
emotions.
 Handout 10-9: Emotional
Intelligence Scale
• This scale is designed to
assess (1) the appraisal and
expression of emotion in
self and others, (2) the
regulation of emotion in
self and others, and (3) the
utilization of emotion in
solving problems.
• Scoring:
– Reverse the #s for
items 5, 28, and 33.
(1=5, 2=4, 3=3, 4=2,
5=1)
– Then add the
numbers in front of
all 33 items.
• Meaning of results:
– High scale scores are
associated with greater
optimism, less depression,
and less impulsivity
– Means of 135 for therapists,
120 for prisoners, 131 for
females, and 125 for males.
– Some studies show EQ to be
a greater predictor for future
success than IQ
 Intelligence as Speed of
Processing
• Are intelligent people faster at retrieving and
processing information?
• Correlation between IQ and:
– Inspection time
– Reaction time
– Evoked potentials
Deary and Stough, 1996
• Theory of Minimal Cognitive Architecture
– Knowledge is obtained through thinking
– Thinking is constrained by the speed of processing
info
Anderson, 1999

20
 Neuroscience and
Intelligence
• Is there relationship between brain size and
intelligence?
– In animal world, the ratio of brain to body weights
does correlate with intelligence
• Human population?
– Correlation between brain size and a number of
cognitive measures
Witelson, Beresh, Kigar (2006)
– Intelligence arises from neural network in the
frontal and parietal lobes of brain regions
Haier and Jung (2007)

21
 Intelligence and Brain Anatomy
“Genius” seems to
correlate with:
overall brain size.
the size of some brain
regions such as the parietal
lobe.
high brain activity in the
frontal and parietal lobes.
extra gray matter (brain cell
bodies, seen as more brain
surface area/convolutions).
extra white matter (axons)
leading to high connectivity
among different regions.
Intelligence and
Brain Functioning
Intelligence in action seems
to involve:
•activity of the front part
of the frontal lobes to
organize and coordinate
information
•“being in shape”;
using less energy to
solve problems than the
brains of “normal”
people.
Intelligence and Processing Speed
Verbal and general intelligence test scores
correlate with the:
 speed of retrieving information from memory.
 speed of receiving and processing sensory and
perceptual information.
Q: Did you process
the tic tac toe
game deeply
enough to say
whether it was
an X or an O in
each of the
now-empty
squares?
Three Key Names in Intelligence
1. Charles Spearman:
General
Intelligence
Contemporary Intelligence Theories

2. Howard Gardner:
Multiple
Intelligences (8)

3. Robert Sternberg:
Multiple
Intelligences (3)
 General Intelligence
Spearman proposed that general intelligence
(g) is linked to many clusters that can be
analyzed by factor analysis (empirically
assessed).
•Supported by Specific abilities (s)
•Math, reading, writing, etc.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary
examinations do well on paragraph comprehension
examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal
intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor,
or a reasoning ability factor.
Contemporary Intelligence Theories
Howard Gardner supports the idea that
intelligence comes in multiple forms.

Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish

one type of ability but not others.
 Savants
• People with savant
syndrome excel in
abilities unrelated to
general intelligence or
have limited mental
capacity.
– 4 of 5 are males
• Rainman
Sternberg’s Intelligence Triarchy
Robert Sternberg (b. 1949) proposed that “success” in
life is related to three types of ability.

Analytical
intelligence:
solving a well-
defined problem
Practical with a single
intelligence: answer
Creative
expertise and intelligence:
talent that help to generating new
complete the ideas to help
tasks and manage adapt to novel
the complex situations
challenges of
everyday life
 Robert Sternberg’s Five
Components of Creativity

Creative environment: having

support, feedback, encouragement,
and time and space to think
Intrinsic motivation:
Venturesome personality: enjoying the pursuit of
tending to seek out new interests and challenge,
experiences despite risk, without needing external
ambiguity, and obstacles direction or rewards
Expertise: Imaginative thinking: having
possessing a well- the ability to see new
developed base of perspectives, combinations,
knowledge and connections
 Emotional Intelligence
(first proposed by Thorndike):
Component Description
Recognize emotions in faces, music
Perceive emotion
and stories

Predict emotions, how they change

Understand emotion
and blend

Express emotions in different

Manage emotion
situations

Utilize emotions to adapt or be

Use emotion
creative
 GRIT
“Success in life” is
impossible to define.
However, wealth tends
to be related to
intelligence test
scores, PLUS:
 focused daily
effort/practice, taking
10 years to achieve
success-level
expertise.
 social support and
connections.
 hard work and
energetic persistence
(grit).
32
 Assessing Intelligence

Psychologists define
intelligence testing as a
method for assessing an
individual’s mental
aptitudes and comparing
them with others using
numerical scores.
IQ 140
• Madonna (Singer)
Jean M. Auel (Author)
Geena Davis (Actress)

IQ 150
• Sharon Stone (154) (Actress)
Carol Vorderman (154; Cattell?) (TV presenter)
Sir Clive Sinclair (159) (Inventor)

IQ 160
• Bill Gates (CEO, Microsoft)
Jill St. John (Actress)
Paul Allen (160+, Microsoft cofounder)
Stephen W. Hawking (160+) (Physicist)
IQ 170
• Andrew J. Wiles (Mathematician; solved Fermat's
Last Theorem)
Judith Polgar (Formula based; Female World
Champion in Chess)

IQ 180
• James Woods (Actor)
John H. Sununu (Chief of Staff for President
Bush)
Benjamin Netanyahu (Israeli Prime Minister)
Marilyn Vos Savant (186) (Author)
Bobby Fischer (187) (Former World Champion in
Chess)

IQ 190
• Philip Emeagwali (Extrapolated; Mathematician)
 Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet and his
colleague Théodore
Simon practiced a more
modern form of
intelligence testing by
developing questions
that would predict
children’s future progress Why he did it:
in the Paris school To identify students who
needed special help in
system.
coping with the school
curriculum.
 Lewis Terman
In the US, Lewis Terman
adapted Binet’s test for
American school children
and named the test the
Stanford-Binet Test. The
following is the formula of
Intelligence Quotient
(IQ), introduced by
William Stern:
 Calculate her IQ
• 8 year old Sue is able to complete most of
the questions designed for 10 year olds,
her IQ would be?
 Calculate her IQ
• 8 year old Sue is able to complete most of
the questions designed for 10 year olds,
her IQ would be?

10 x 100 = 125
8
 Lewis Terman
What he did:
In the US, Terman adapted Binet’s
test for American school children and
named the test the Stanford-Binet
Test IQ Test.

Why he did it:

Terman believed in eugenics
Eugenics: a social movement aimed at improving the
human species through selective breeding…promoted
higher reproduction rates of people with ‘superior’ traits,
and aimed to reduce reproduction rates of people with
‘inferior’ traits.
 Modern Intelligence Tests
• Achievement Tests- assess what a person
has learned; reflect existing knowledge
– Examples: a literacy test, a driver’s license
exam, a final exam in psychology course
• Aptitude Tests- designed to predict a
person’s future performance
– Aptitude- capacity to learn

Achievement tests assess current

performance and aptitude tests predict
future performance
Aptitude vs. Achievement
 Achievement tests measure what you already have
learned.
 Aptitude tests attempt to predict your ability to learn
new skills.
 The SAT, ACT, and GRE are supposed to predict your
ability to do well in future academic work.

IQ
If the SAT is an
aptitude test,
should it
correlate with
IQ?

SAT scores (verbal + quantitative)

 David Wechsler
Wechsler developed the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS) and later the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale
for Children (WISC), an
intelligence test for school-
aged children.

*Addressed language and

age
 WAIS
WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other
aspects related to intelligence that are designed
to assess clinical and educational problems.
Separates scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual
organization, working memory, and processing speed
 Sample Questions (WAIS III)
• Information-asks a series of questions designed to
tap general knowledge about common events,
objects, places, and people.
– How many wings does a bird have? How many nickels
make a dime? What is steam made of? Who wrote Tom
Sawyer? What is pepper?
• Comprehension-asks questions designed to
measure practical knowledge and understanding of
social rules and concepts.
– What should you do if you see someone forget his book
when he leaves a restaurant?
– What is the advantage of keeping money in a bank?
– Why is copper often used in electrical wires?
 Sample Question (WAIS III)
• Similarities-Presents two words that represent
common objects or concepts. The examinee is
asked to state how the objects or concepts are
similar. The task is designed to measure logical
or abstract thinking and the ability to categorize
and generalize.
– In what way are a lion and a tiger alike?
– In what way are a saw and a hammer alike?
– In what way are an hour and a week alike?
– In what way are a circle and a triangle alike?
 The structure of the WISC-IV
The WISC-IV has four specific cognitive domains
(Indexes) which together contribute to the Full
Scale IQ

FULL Scale IQ

Working
Verbal Perceptual Processing
Comprehension Reasoning Memory Speed

© Text, format, graphics and data Copyright Dr John Worthington all rights reserved 2004 ©
www.jweducation.com
 Verbal Comprehension (VC) Index
An example:
“Let’s play a guessing game. Tell me what I’m thinking of.”

An example of the ceiling (hardest) item…

This has never been seen or done before…
and it can make our lives better and easier…
and it is a product of the mind.

1 point: discovery, invention, innovation,

technology, imagination, creativity, dream
 Principles of Test Construction

For a psychological test to be acceptable it

must fulfill the following three criteria:

1. Standardization
2. Reliability
3. Validity
 Standardization
Standardizing a test involves administering
the test to a representative sample of future
test takers in order to establish a basis for
meaningful comparison.
 Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution
of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped
pattern called the normal curve.
 Let’s talk Statistics
Statistical analysis is used to determine whether any
relationships or differences among the variables are
significant, quantifies the exact strength of the
association. Two types:
Descriptive Statistics
Used to describe, organize Statistical Significancea
& summarize data to
make it more understandable
Used to interpret data
& draw conclusions. “What can
Central Tendency we infer about the population
Variability from data gathered from the
Correlation sample?”
Inferential Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics:
Measures of Central Tendency
(summarizes data set by providing a representative
Median number)
Score that falls in the center of a distribution of scores.
When there is an even number of scores in a data set, the
median is halfway between the two middle numbers.
Best indicator of central tendency when there is a skew.
The median is unaffected by extreme scores.
Mean ∑ X/N = X
Average of scores in a distribution. Even one extreme score can
change the mean radically, possibly making it less
representative of the data. Most significant because additional
statistical manipulations can be performed on it.
Mode
Most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Variability
Indicate the dispersion or spread in a data set. How much the
scores in a set of data vary from: a. each other
b. the Mean
Tell you if the scores are very different from one another or if
they cluster around the mean.
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of
data. Extreme scores can radically affect the range of a data set.
Standard Deviation
Reflects the average distance between every score and the mean.
Tells you how different the scores are
from the mean. Tells you whether scores
are packed together or dispersed.
Standard
Variability
Deviation
 Inferential Statistics
• While descriptive statistics summarize a data set, we
often want to go beyond the data:
– Is the world at large like my sample?
– Are my descriptive statistics misleading?
• Inferential statistics give probability that the sample is
like the world at large.
– Allow psychologists to infer what the data mean.
– Assess how likely it is that group differences or
correlations would exist in the population rather
than occurring only due to variables associated with
the chosen sample.
 Sample Test Questions
• What proportion of the population have an IQ of
less than 130?

• What proportion of the population have an IQ of

more than 115?
 Sample Test Questions
• What proportion of the population have an IQ of
less than 130?
– Half of 95% is 47.5%. 50% + 47.5% = 97.5%
• What proportion of the population have an IQ of
more than 115?
– Half of 68% is 34% 50+34 = 84% have an IQ less than
115 so 100 – 84 = 16% have an IQ greater than 115
 Sample Test Question

• The following is a list of four scores from the IQ

test Philip’s friends took: 136, 95, 91, 90. If we
wanted to know what the IQ of Philip’s friends is
MOST like (i.e. we want one number to
represent all their IQs) , which would be the best
representative? Mean or Median?
 Sample Test Question

• The following is a list of four scores from the IQ

test Philip’s friends took: 136, 95, 91, 90. If we
wanted to know what the IQ of Philip’s friends is
MOST like, which would be the best indicator?
Mean or Median?
– Mean = 103 Median = 93
– Answer = median. The mean is affected by
the one extreme score of 136 and is therefore
too high.
 Sample Test Question
• For a language test with normally
distributed scores, the mean was 70 and
the standard deviation was 10. What
percentage of test takers scored 60 and
above?
 Sample Test Question
• For a language test with normally
distributed scores, the mean was 70 and
the standard deviation was 10. What
percentage of test takers scored 60 and
above?
• That tells us that 68% of the sample scored
between 60 and 80. 32% of the sample scored
either below 60 or above 80. Normal
distributions are symmetrical so half of 32 = 16%
scored below 60 which means 100 – 16 = 84%
scored above 60.
 Skewed Distribution
• An asymmetrical distribution of scores, such as a
curve with a bump on the left and tail to the right
or most scores are bunched to the left or right of
the mean
– The mean is the largest
– The mode or median are smaller than the
mean
– The mean is a less useful measure; while the
median is more useful

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 90 475 710
70

Mode Median Mean

One Family Income per family in thousands of dollars
 Statistical Breakdown of Intelligence
• Philip then wanted to find out if he and his friends
were smarter than his dad and his dad’s friends, so he
gave the IQ test to his dad and his friends. Compare
the two groups of scores:
– Philip’s group: 104, 102, 95, 91, 90, 83, 72
– Philip’s dad’s group: 95, 93, 92, 91, 90, 89, 87
• What can we determine about the two groups?
How are they different? Similar?
 Statistical Breakdown of Intelligence
– Philip’s group: 104, 102, 95, 91, 90, 83, 72
– Philip’s dad’s group: 95, 93, 92, 91, 90, 89, 87
• What can we determine about the two groups? How are
they different? Similar?
– For each of the groups, the mean = 91
– However, the range for Philip’s group = 32; while
the range for dad’s group = 8. The standard
deviation for Philip’s group will be larger than the
standard deviation for dad’s group.
– The groups did not perform the same. The scores
in Philip’s group are much more spread out than
in the dad’s group. The scores for the dad’s
group tend to cluster closer to the mean
 Statistical Breakdown of Intelligence
• The IQ test Philip used was recently re-normed.
Why are IQ tests periodically updated?
– Changes in knowledge require tests to be re-
normed
• People have gotten smarter (Flynn Effect)
• The numbers of questions answered
accurately has increased over the years
• Changes that affect IQ test scores of
groups (e.g. sociocultural or technological)
• Changes in educational practices or
techniques (that affect knowledge)
• Keep material culturally relevant
– Re-norm to maintain validity and/or reliability
 Reliability
A test is reliable when it yields consistent
results. To establish reliability researchers
establish different procedures:

1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into

two equal halves and assessing how
consistent the scores are.
2. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same
test on two occasions to measure
consistency.
 Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of
a test refers to the extent that the test measures or
predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict.
1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test
measures a particular behavior or trait of
interest.
 driving test that samples driving tasks
2. Predictive (Criterion-Related) Validity: Refers to the
success of a test in predicting a particular behavior or
trait it is designed to predict. Assessed by computing
the correlation between test scores and the criterion
behavior.
 behavior (such as college grades) that a test
(such as the SAT) is designed to predict
Extremes of Intelligence
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale is set so that
about 2.5% of the population is above 130 and
about 2.5% of the population is below 70.

Very High
Intellectual Intelligence,
Disability Gifted

2.5% 2.5%
 High Intelligence
Contrary to popular belief, people with high
intelligence test scores tend to be healthy, well
adjusted, and unusually successful academically.
However they can appear to be more isolated,
introverted, or “in their own worlds”.
 Intellectual Disability
Mentally retarded (intellectually disabled) individuals
required constant supervision a few decades ago, but
with a supportive family environment and special or
mainstreamed education some individuals with mild
disability levels can now care for themselves.

Down Syndrome
 Heritability
 the proportion of variation among
individuals that we can attribute to
genes
 variability depends on range of
populations and environments studied
Our genes shape the experiences that shape
us.
 Genetic Influences
Identical Twin Studies- similar test scores
Similar gray matter- neural cell bodies
 Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation in
verbal ability to their adopted parents.

Genetic influences- not environmental ones- become

more apparent as we accumulate life experiences
 (James )Flynn Effect

In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have

risen steadily by an average of 27 points. This
phenomenon is known as the Flynn Effect.
Schooling Effects
At the same grade
level, older children
tend to score higher
than younger
children.

Schooling is an experience that pays dividends,

which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased
schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores.
To increase
readiness for
schoolwork,
projects like
Head Start
facilitate leaning.
 Early Intervention Effects
Early neglect from caregivers leads children to
develop a lack of personal control over the
environment, and it impoverishes their intelligence.

J. McVicker Hunt found Romanian orphans with

minimal human interaction were delayed in their
development.
Stability of Intelligence Test Scores
Over the Lifespan
Pushing toddlers to learn does not seem to help much.
Only by age four is a child’s performance on
intelligence tests a predictor of future performance on
intelligence tests.
Based on the
results of a
longitudinal study
depicted in this
chart, does
intelligence test
score at age 11
predict
intelligence test
score at age 80?
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Fluid intelligence refers
to the ability to think
quickly and abstractly.

Crystallized intelligence
refers to accumulated
wisdom, knowledge,
expertise, and vocabulary.
Stability of Intelligence
during Aging:
Which type of intelligence?
Based on this
chart, at what age
might you do best
at completing a
crossword puzzle
quickly?
 Group Differences in Intelligence
Test Scores

Why do groups differ in intelligence? How

can we make sense of these differences?
 Group Differences
 The Mental Rotation Test
Which two of the other circles contain a
configuration of blocks
identical to the one in the circle at the left?
Standard Responses
 Male-Female
Ability Differences

 Girls tend to be better at spelling, locating

objects, and detecting emotions.
 Girls tend to be more verbally fluent, and more
sensitive to touch, taste, and color.
 Boys tend to be better at handling spatial
reasoning and complex math problems.
 It is a myth that boys generally do better in math
than girls. Girls do at least as well as boys in
overall math performance and especially in math
computation.
 Ethnic/Racial Differences in
Intelligence Test Scores
The bell curve for African American intelligence test scores is
centered at 85. For non-African Americans, the average is 100.
Whatever the cause of this score difference, it is incorrect to
use this information to predict the score of an individual.

The green triangle shows

African-Americans scoring
higher than the average
non-African-Americans.
How can we interpret this
group difference in
average intelligence test
scores?
We will look at the issue of
test bias and other factors
affecting scores for But first…
perceived minorities.
 The “Racial” Intelligence Test Score Gap
 Racial categories are not
distinct genetically and are
unscientific.
 Both “whites” and “blacks” have
higher intelligence test scores
than “whites” of the 1930s.
 “Whites” may have more
access to “fertile soil” for
developing their potential, such
as:
 schools and educational
opportunities.
 wealth, nutrition, support,
and educated mentors.
 relative freedom from
discrimination.
 Environmental Effects
Differences in intelligence among these groups are
largely environmental, as if one environment is more
fertile in developing these abilities than the other.
 The Question of Bias
Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense
that they are sensitive to performance differences
caused by cultural differences.

However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense

that they accurately predict performance of one
group over the other.
 Test-Takers’ Expectations
A stereotype threat is a self-confirming concern
that one will be evaluated based on a negative
stereotype.

This phenomenon appears in some instances in

intelligence testing among African-Americans and
among women of all colors.
 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
• A prediction that directly or indirectly
causes itself to become true