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An Ecological Perspective on Agriculture
Farming creates novel ecological conditions
Agroecosystem
Differ from natural systems in six ways
Agroecosystem
1. In farming we try to stop ecological succession and
keep the agroecosystem in an early-successional state.
2. Monoculture- large areas planted with a single
species
Counteracted by crop rotation
3. Crops planted in neat rows, which makes life easy
for pests.
Agroecosystem
4. Farming greatly simplifies biological diversity and
food chains.
5. Plowing is unlike any natural soil disturbance.
Nothing in nature repeatedly and regularly turns over
the soil to a specific depth.
6. Genetic modification of crops
Limiting Factors
High-quality agricultural soil has
All the chemical elements required for plants
A physical structure that lets air and water move freely
Retains water well
Mixture of soil particle size
The Future of Agriculture
Three major technological approaches to agriculture
1. Modern mechanized agriculture
2. Resource- based agriculture
Organic food production
3. Bioengineering
Demand-based agriculture
Resource-based agriculture
An organic farm
History of Agriculture
1. Resource-based agriculture and what we now call
organic agriculture were introduced about
10,000years ago.
2. A shift to mechanized, demand-based agriculture
occurred during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th
and 19th centuries.
3. A return to resource-based agriculture began in
the 20th century, using new techniques.
4. Today there is a growing interest in organic
agriculture as well as use of genetically engineered
crops.
The Green Revolution
Name attached to the post WWII programs that have
led to the development of
new strain of crops w/ higher yield
better resistance to disease
or better ability to grow under poor conditions
The term Green Revolution refers to the introduction
of high-yielding varieties of staple food crops,
particularly wheat and rice, into Third World
countries, starting in the 1960s. Initially Mexico, India
and the Philippines were targeted. The stated aim was
to increase food production to end hunger and prevent
uprisings.
Improved Irrigation
Better irrigation techniques could improve crop yield
and reduce overall water use
Drip irrigation
Hydroponics
Organic Farming
Organic faming typically considered to have three
qualities
More like nature ecosystem than monoculture
Minimizes negative environmental impacts
The food that results does not contain artificial
compounds
One of the fastest growing sectors in US ag
Eating Lower on the Food Chain
Some people believe it is ecologically unsound to use
domestic animals for food.
Eating each step up the food chain leaves much less food
to eat per acre
On the best ag land this hold true but on rangelands
area better suited to livestock
Wisest approach may be to avoid using best lands for
animal feed
Genetically Modified Food
Scientist have been able to transfer specific genetic
characteristics from one individual to another,
from one population to another, and from one
species to another.
Genetic engineering in ag involves several
practices
Faster and more efficient ways to develop hybrids
Introduction of the terminator gene
Transfer of genetic properties from widely divergent
kinds of life
Genetically Modified Food
Considerable interest in developing crops
With entirely new characteristics
E.g. nitrogen fixation
With tolerance of drought, cold, heat and toxic chemical
elements.
Climate Change and Agriculture
Climate change can increase or decrease yield
Likely to decrease as areas with good soils also have
suitable climate for agriculture
Climate change may increase evapotranspiration.
Irrigation and water supply becoming a bigger problem
How Agriculture Changes the Environment
Agriculture one of our greatest triumphs and
sources of environmental damage.
Major environmental problems
Soil erosion
Sediment transport and deposition downstream
On-site pollution from overuse and secondary effects of
fertilizers and pesticides
Off-site pollution of other ecosystems, of soil, water and
air
How Agriculture Changes the Environment
Major environmental problems cont.
Deforestation
Desertification
Degradation of aquifers
Salinization
Accumulation of toxic organic compounds
Loss of biodiversity
The Plow Puzzle
The more altered the soil the great the amount of
material must be added each year
Fertilizers, pesticides, water
Our Eroding Soil
When land cleared of its natural vegetation, the soil
begins to lose its fertility
Physical erosion
Became a national issue in the US in the 1930s
Intense plowing + drought
Loosened soil blow away
Our Eroding Soil
Traditionally decline in soil fertility combated using
organic fertilizers
Animal manure
In the 20th century crop production increased
Chemical or artificial fertilizers
Add nitrogen and phosphorous to the soil
Our Eroding Soil
Since WWII mechanized farming has seriously
damaged land
> 1 billion hectares
In US 1/3 of topsoil has been lost
Where Eroded Soil Goes
A lot of it travels down streams and rivers
Deposited at their mouths
Fill in water ways
Damage fisheries and coral reefs
Sedimentation has chemical effects
Enrichment of waters, eutrophication
Transport of toxic chemical pesticides
Making Soils Sustainable
Soil forms continuously
But very slowly
1mm of soil formation takes 10-40 years
To be truly sustainable soil lost should equal amount
of new soil produced
No-Till Agriculture
Involves not plowing the land, using herbicides and
integrated pest management to keep down weeds, and
allowing some weeds to grow.
The goal is to suppress and control weeds but not
eliminate them at the expense of soil conservation
Additional benefit reduces the release of CO2
Controlling Pests
Pests are undesirable
Competitors, parasites, and predators
In agriculture pests are mainly
Insects, nematodes, bacterial and viral diseases, weeds
and vertebrates.
Loss can be large
Estimated at 1/3 of potential harvest and 1/10 of the
harvested crop
Controlling Pests
Because a farm is maintained in a very early stage of
ecological succession and enriched by fertilizers and
water
It is a good place for crops
AND early-successional plants (weeds)
Weeds compete for all resources
Light, water,nutrients, and space to grow.
The History of Pesticides
Pre- Industrial Revolution methods
Slash and burn agriculture
Planting aromatic herbs that repel insects
Modern science-based agriculture
Search for chemicals that would reduce abundance of
pests
The first, like arsenic, toxic to all life
Killed pest and beneficial organisms
The History of Pesticides
Second stage began in the 1930
Petroleum based sprays and natural plant chemicals
(e.g., nicotine)
Third stage was the development of artificial organic
compounds
DDT, broad-spectrum
Aldrin and dieldrin used to control termites
Toxic to humans, has been found in breast milk
The History of Pesticides
Forth stage is a return to biological and ecological
knowledge.
Biological control- the use of biological predators and
parasites to control pests
The use of Bacillus thuringiensis (BT)
Proved safe and effective
Does Farming Change the Biosphere?
1st Agriculture changes land cover
Resulting in changes in reflected light
The evaporation of water
The roughness of the surface
Rate of exchange of chemical compounds
2nd Modern ag increases carbon dioxide
Major user of fossil fuels
Clearing land speeds decomposition
Does Farming Change the Biosphere?
3rd Affect climate through fires
Associated w/ clearing land
Add small particulates to the atmosphere
4th Artificial production of nitrogen
Alters biogeochemical cycle
5th Affects species diversity
Reduces diversity and increases # of endangered species