B48BB Topic 1 Student Slides v3

B48BB
Process Engineering A
Fluid Mechanics
Topic 1
Fluid Statics
April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 1

Learning Objectives
After studying this Fluid Mechanics topic you should be able
to:
• Distinguish between solids, liquids and gases.
• Apply appropriate SI units and solve fluid static problems.
• Derive a relationship between the depth of a fluid and the
hydrostatic pressure gradient.
• Explain hydrostatic pressure relations between points at
the same level in different legs of a U-tube.
• Describe different types of industrial and laboratory
manometers and derive appropriate expressions.
• Solve realistic manometer problems.
• Describe surface tension and interfacial tension and the
relationship between cohesive and adhesive forces.

• Explain how surface tension is measured and derive
relationship between internal pressure of a droplet and the
surface tension of the droplet.
• Describe contact angle and explain its relation to
wettability and cohesive/adhesive forces.
• Explain capillary pressure and derive capillary pressure
relationship.
• Relate the capillary pressure to hydrostatic pressure
column and explain the different capillary rise effects in
relation to fluid wettability.

1.1 Introduction
Fluid Mechanics is of major importance in engineering. It
involves applying the basic concepts of mass, momentum
and energy balances to fluids:

1.1 Introduction
When atoms are separated far apart, distance “ r ”
there is a weak force of attraction which grows stronger
as the atoms approach each other:
Force
F
Attraction
+
Separation
- r
Repulsion
• At closer separations, this becomes a repulsive

force – however, the net effect is shown below:
Force
F
+
ro
Separation
- r

Potential Energy and Binding Energy
The area under this “force-separation” curve is the energy
needed to infinitely separate a pair – the binding energy.

PE   F dr
r
• If this PE is plotted versus atomic separation r the plot

below is obtained:
Energy
PE
• At separation ro there is
+ ro minimum PE E .
- E
Separation • Attractive and repulsive
r
forces balance.
ro is a stable equilibrium separation for solids or liquids.

Kinetic Energy Disrupts Binding
At separation ro there is a binding energy E holding pair of
atoms or molecules together. But kinetic energy KE
depends on temperature – consider three cases:
Ice melts to a liquid at 0oC and boils into a gas at 100oC. This
is the effect of KE disrupting binding-pair formation.
Solid and Fluid Behaviour
Consider a shearing force F and suppose an equal but
opposite force maintains the block in equilibrium:
equilibrium:
Force
F
2. Fluids cannot resist a shear stress and the different

layers of fluid will “slip” relative to each other:
• Slip continues so long as the shear stress is applied.
• Remove the stress and the slippage stops.
• Liquids deform continuously when sheared.

1.2 Fundamental Units
There are seven fundamental SI units. Fundamental units
cannot be subdivided into other units. The fundamental
units define the basis of the SI system:
Quantity Dimension SI Unit
mass [M] kg (kilogram)
length [L] m (metre)
time [T] s (second)
temperature [] K (kelvin)
amount of substance [N] mol (mole)
electric current [I] A (ampere)
luminous intensity [J] cd (candela)

Derived Units
“Derived units” are products or quotients of fundamental
units raised to some power. Some widely used derived SI
units are listed below:
Quantity SI Name SI Symbol Fundamental SI
units
force newton N kg m/s2

pressure pascal Pa (N/m2) kg/m s2
energy joule J (N m) kg m2/s2
power watt W (J/s) kg m2/s3
frequency hertz Hz 1/s
angle radian rad -

Engineering Derived Units
Key variables associated with Fluid Mechanics, together
with their usual symbols and SI units are listed below:
Quantity Symbol SI units
area A m2
volume V m3
density  kg/m3
velocity (average) u m/s
velocity (point) v m/s
mass flow m kg/s
volumetric flow Q m3/s
pressure (normal stress) P Pa
shear stress  Pa
shear rate  1/s
dynamic viscosity  Pa s
surface tension  N/m
compressibility c 1/Pa

Pressure Units
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa) but many textbooks
use (N/m2). The pascal is defined as follows:
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
The pascal (Pa) and the kilopascal (kPa) are quite small and
very often industrial instruments read out in bar (bar):
An (atm) is not the same as a (bar) – see below:

Absolute and Gauge Pressure
If zero on the pressure scale is assigned to a complete
vacuum, then the scale is an “Absolute Pressure” scale.
• If zero on the pressure scale is assigned to atmospheric
pressure, then the scale is a “Gauge Pressure” scale.
PAbsolute  601.325 kN/m 2 absolute PGauge  500 kN/m 2 gauge
PAtmospheric  101.325 kN/m 2 absolute

0
Atmospheric pressure
Absolute zero pressure

0
(complete vacuum)

Pressure and Shear Stress
Both pressure and shear stress have the same units (N/m2):
either case “stress” means force divided by area:
• Pressure acts perpendicularly to

 For pressure: the stress acts on an
Shear
Stress Normal the surface.
area that is perpendicular to the
Stress force.
 For shear stress: the stress acts

• Shear stress acts parallel to the
on an area that is parallel to the
surface.
force.
The “area” for shear stress and pressure are different and
care is needed when identifying them.
Fluid Viscosity
The SI unit of viscosity is the “pascal second” (Pa s) but
many books and lecturers use (N s/m2) or even (kg/m s).
The “pascal second” is defined as follows:
• Viscosity is sometimes measured in poise (P) or

centipoise (cP). These units were originally developed
for the CGS system:
• In terms of SI units the centipoise (cP) is equivalent to

Fluid Density
Specific gravity “sg” is the ratio of two densities as follows:
The density of any substance depends on temperature and

pressure.
• However, liquid density is only weakly dependent on
pressure and this dependence is usually ignored.
• Liquid density is strongly dependent on temperature.
Often the maximum density of water is used in the
denominator – this occurs at 4oC.

Fluid Compressibility
The isothermal Coefficient of Compressibility is used only
for liquids and solids. It is given the symbol c and has units
of reciprocal pressure (1/Pa):
The compressibility is how much the fluid
volume may be fractionally “squeezed”
per unit change in pressure.
Where,
V = Volume of the fluid (m3)
= The extent to which volume of the fluid
changes with pressure when the temperature
is kept constant (m3/Pa)
Very often liquids are considered “incompressible” in which
case fluid compressibility will be zero.
1.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Laws
Consider a very small “prism” of fluid with pressures
of Px perpendicular
Py and toPseachperpendicular to each
of the three faces as shown below: of the three faces as
shown below:
z Ps
s
Px
y

x Py
• The fluid
The fluid is atis
restat
withrest withforces
no shearing no acting
shearing forces
on any face acting on any
of the elemental
face of the prism. The prism is not accelerating, so that

the forces acting in the x-direction must sum to zero:

Pascal’s Hydrostatic Pressure Law
• From the geometry of the elemental prism:
y
  Fx  Px zy  Ps zs  0
s
 Px  Ps
• Carryout the same force balance in the y-direction. At
static equilibrium all the forces must again sum to zero:
1
 Fy  Py xz  2 xyzg  Ps cos zs  0

Pascal’s Hydrostatic Pressure Law
• Since x, y and s are each very small, it follows that
the product ( x.y.s) must be negligible, so that
x
  Fy  Pyxz  Ps zs  0
s
 Py  Ps
• Taking each of these results together it follows that for
any fluid in hydrostatic equilibrium
Px  Py  Ps The same argument applies to the Z-
direction and indeed any direction.

1.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient
Consider an imaginary cylinder within any general body
of fluid:
• The pressure at the base is P2 (N/m2) the pressure at
the top of the cylinder is P1 (N/m2)
• The cylinder has area A (m2). The fluid has a
density
  (kg/m3) – see heights h (m) below:
The fluid has density (kg/m3) and the heights (m) are as indicated below:
P1
h1
A h
mg
h2
P2
If the body of fluid is at rest, no shear stresses are acting, there is no

Vertical Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient
Take upward force to be positive and downward forces to be
negative:
 F  P2 A  P1 A  A(h2  h1 ) g  0
 P2  P1  g (h2  h1 )  0
• It is simpler to allow the difference in height between the
two levels to be represented just by h (m), so that the
above becomes
The hydrostatic pressure P2 at a deeper level: is the pressure

at a shallower level P1 , plus “ gh ” – all units in (Pa).
The normal way of writing the hydrostatic pressure gradient
equation is as follows:
Where,
P = Pressure difference between any two vertical
points in a body of fluid (Pa) or (N/m2).
• Consider that pressure P2 is needed at any depth h
below the liquid surface:
P1 “1”
Surface
P2  P1  gh “2”
Deeper

Hydrostatic Pressure Equality at Same Depth
Consider that points “1” and “2” are at the same level,
within any body of liquid, and that the fluid is static:
Points “1” and “2” are at the same level and fluid is in static equilibrium:
A
 mg acts vertically.
P1 P2  Thus, there is no component

A
of mg acting in the horizontal
direction.
mg
The forces acting horizontally must sum to zero as follows:

F x  P2 A  P1 A  0
In any body of liquid at rest, the pressure can
only be the same at different locations, so
 P2  P1 long as the depth is the same.

Example: 1.3.1
Problem:
A diver swims down from the surface to the seafloor

which is at a vertical depth of 25 m. The density of
seawater can be taken to be 1030 kg/m3; assume no
variation in density with depth.
Calculate the change in pressure between the surface and

the seafloor and express the seafloor pressure in both
(bara) and (barg). The barometric pressure is 760 mm Hg
and take the s.g. of mercury to be 13.6.

Example 1.3.1
Solution:
• Write down the vertical hydrostatic pressure difference
between any two points:
• Calculate this pressure differential:
• Write down the pressure at any depth “2” with respect

to the surface pressure “1”:
This is pressure
difference term
Example 1.3.1 , Solution:
• Calculate the gauge pressure on the seafloor “2” with
respect to surface “1”:
• Convert this to (barg):
• Use the barometer to calculate atmospheric pressure:
• Convert pressure on seafloor to absolute pressure:

Absolute pressure about
1.01 bar more than gauge
pressure.

Example: 1.3.2
Problem:
Consider the “U-tube” as shown below, filled with a single
fluid and each end open to the atmosphere.
Show that the pressure at any level in the left hand limb
must be the same as the pressure at a corresponding
height in the right hand limb:
• Point “1” and point “2” are both at
 Point “1” and point “2”
are both at the same
P1 P2
the same level and correspond to
level.
liquid
 Point “3” and level
point “4” in left and right limbs.
are both at the same
h level.
P3 P4
• Point “3” and point “4” are both at
the same level.
To find the pressure at point “3” apply equation (1.4) between point “1” and
Example 1.3.2
Solution:
Apply the hydrostatic pressure equation to find the

pressure at level “3” knowing the pressure at level “1” :
Apply the hydrostatic pressure equation to find the

pressure at level “4” knowing the pressure at level “2” :
But, points “3” and “4” are the same depth from the
surface and must have the same pressure

Example 1.3.2, Solution:
Substitute the first two equations into the last one:
This result is fairly intuitive – nevertheless, it has

important consequences:

1.4 Manometers
The left hand limb of a simple U-tube manometer connects
to a pipe with internal pressure P1 (N/m2). The right hand
limb is open to the atmosphere and subject to atmospheric
are aspressure P2 (N/m
indicated in the diagram 2).
below:
P2
P1
2
h1 h2
1
A B
Key heights are as indicated in the diagram above.

• The pressure at point “A” in the left hand limb of the
manometer is given by
• The pressure at point “B” in the right hand limb of the

manometer is again given by
• However “A” and “B” are at the same height , so PA  PB

• Further re-arrangement yields the unknown pressure,
which may be above or below atmospheric pressure
• Taking atmospheric pressure P2 over to the other side,

leads to an alternative expression for P1
• If P2 is set to zero, then P1 will be gauge pressure. If P2 is set

to atmospheric pressure, then P1 will be absolute pressure.
• If the fluid inside the pipe is a gas, 1 will be small and the
second term within the brackets is negligible, so that

Example: 1.4.1
Problem:
A fluid flowing through a pipe has a density of 900 (kg/m3).

The Process Engineer wishes to measure the static
pressure of the fluid in terms of (kN/m2 gauge).
A mercury-filled manometer (s.g.are13.6) is incorrectly

as indicated the diagram below:
attached to the pipe: P 2
Height h1  0.35 m P1
2
h1 h2
Height h2  0.75 m (above “B”) 1
A B

Example 1.4.1
Solution:
• Write down the manometer equation where the LH
limb density is not negligible:
• Solve this expression knowing that gauge pressure is

needed:

Example: 1.4.2
Problem:
Repeat the same problem but now with new heights

shown below :
Height h1  0.15 m
Height h2  0.25 m (above “A”)
It is clear from the heights that the pressure inside the

pipe is less than atmospheric pressure.

Example 1.4.2
Solution:
• Derive the correct manometer equation for this application
where deflection is in opposite direction:
• Solve the above expression, remembering that gauge

pressure is required:
Clearly a negative gauge pressure that is greater than current

atmospheric pressure is impossible.
1.4.2 Inclined Manometer
Low pressure measurement provides little vertical
deflection in the RH limb of a simple U-tube manometer:
Gasiorek, Swaffield and Lynne, 2006)
• The RH limb may be

P1
P2 inclined.
L
h1
1 2 h2
 • This allows for a longer
A B
scale on the inclined leg.
• The pressure at “A” in the LH limb is again given by

• The pressure at “B” in the RH limb is again given by
• Since PA  PB the equations above may be combined as

follows:
This is same equation as a

simple U-tube manometer
• For an inclined manometer, the right hand limb is at an

angle  and reads out along scale L , so that
This allows vertical height
of LH limb to be expanded
in terms of length “L”.

• The only difference between an inclined manometer and
a simple U-tube manometer is the relation below:
• And the manometer equation then becomes
Or,
P1  P2  g  2 L sin   1h1 
• For a gas (low gas density) this reduces to

1.5 Surface Tension and Wettability
Within the body of a liquid molecules or atoms experience
an equal force of attraction in all directions from all the
other
other molecules
molecules within the within
liquid: the liquid body:
• At the liquid/gas interface there is an imbalance of forces.

between the liquid and the gas molecules (adhesive):

Thus, the surface molecules experience a net inward force of
attraction into the bulk of the liquid:
• This contraction creates an inward pressure and forces the
liquid to adopt a minimum area.
• The surface then behaves like a stretched elastic sheet.
• This property of liquid surfaces is called “surface tension”.
Surface tension will support the weight of a paperclip, which

seems to “float” on the surface when placed down gently:
• Surface tension is given the symbol  .
• Surface tension has units (N/m).
Measurement of Surface Tension
It can be measured by the “du Nouy Ring Method” in which
a platinum ring is slowly lifted from the surface.
Force F • Force F (N) is measured

Platinum ring just as the platinum ring
Average
circumference L(m) breaks free from the
surface.
• Surface tension is then measured using the formula. A

correction factor (numerator RHS) has been dropped.
F The factor “2” in the denominator
 doubles the ring circumference; this
2L is because two films are stretched ,
one at either circumference of ring.
Droplet Formation
Surface tension is caused by unbalanced inward cohesion.
As the surface contracts the internal pressure of the drop
rises to balance inward contraction.
• The net inward force FIN (N) generates the surface

tension  (N/m), that acts on perimeter of the drop
• Internal pressure P rises to balance this contraction, the

outward force FOUT (N) exerted by this pressure is

• At equilibrium net inward acting cohesive force FIN
must be balanced by outward acting pressure
force FOUT.
2r  r 2 P
This equation applies to a spherical drop:

• It could be a drop of water in air.
• It could be a bubble of air in water.
• The above equation relates the internal pressure P
(N/m2) generated by the surface tension  (N/m),
for a given droplet radius r (m).

Example: 1.5
Problem:
Air is passed through a 1 mm nozzle and is being dispersed into

a water-filled cylinder as a fine stream of bubbles.
Calculate the additional pressure needed to form the bubbles at

the nozzle; that is, the extra pressure over and above the
hydrostatic column of water. Take the surface tension of water
in air to be 73  10 3 N/m.

Example: 1.5
Solution:
• Write down the expression for the pressure needed to form

a bubble:
• Calculate the pressure and check that the units are correct:

1.5.1 Contact Angle and Wettability
When a liquid droplet, surrounded by gas, is placed on a
solid surface there are three interfacial tensions at play:
the liquid-gas interface meets the solid interface.
 LG
Water has high wettability to many
 SL C  SG surfaces (strongly “adhesive”). For the
same surfaces Hg is non-wetting.
The combined action of these three surface forces fixes the

contact angle:
• The contact angle reflects the strength of the
intermolecular forces between solid, liquid and gas.
• These are so-called “adhesive” and “cohesive” forces.
The equilibrium contact angle  C is measured through the
the liquid-gas interface meets the solid interface.
liquid phase where the liquid/gas/solid interfaces meet:
 LG
 SL C  SG
• The balance between the “cohesive” force within the liquid

the “adhesive” force between the liquid and solid
determines the wettability (contact angle) as follows:
Contact Angle Wettability Adhesive Cohesive
Perfect Very Weak
Wetting Strong
High Strong Strong
Wettability
High Weak Strong
Non-Wettability
Perfect Very Strong
Non-Wetting Weak

1.5.2 Capillarity
A similar phenomenon occurs when a liquid, solid and gas
come together in a glass tube.
• If the diameter of the tube is small enough the wetting
liquid (say water) will rise a certain height h in the tube
case) will be raised a certain height h in the tube above the free water level
above the free water level:
(FWL):
Patm
 LG
h
(FWL)
The pressure that draws the liquid into the tube is known as the
capillary pressure PC (N/m2).

Resolving the surface tension force vertically provides the
upward force supporting the column of liquid.
• The force acting down is simply the force of gravity

acting on the column of liquid, given by
• At hydrostatic equilibrium these forces are equal and

opposite
• The capillary rise height h (m) is then easily found:

Alternatively, instead of capillary rise height (m)
h the
previous equation may be framed in terms of capillary
pressure Pc (N/m2):
• It is possible to think of capillary effects in terms of

the “rise height” h or the “capillary pressure” Pc .
What controls the rise height, or capillary pressure, is the

contact angle  C , which is indicative of “wettability”, the
surface tension  and the tube radius r .

The capillary pressure Pc is the difference between the air
pressure P and
the water pressure Pair
the water pressure Pwater on either side of
water on either side of the curved meniscus.
the curved meniscus.
Pc  Pair  Pwater ……………………………………..(1.16)
Patm Height
Pair Pwater Pair
Pc
Pwater
Patm Pressure
• Immediately above the meniscus, within the tube, the air

will be at prevailing atmospheric pressure.
• The pressure in the water just below the curved meniscus
must be below atmospheric pressure.
The capillary pressure is the pressure difference between the
the water pressure Pwater on either side of the curved meniscus.
air and the water across the curved meniscus:
Pc  Pair
• It acts to draw the  Pwater
water ……………………………………..(1.16)
up and into the tube by an amount
equal to the capillary rise height.
Patm Height
Pair Pwater Pair
Pc
Pwater
Patm Pressure
Wettability of the fluid is a key parameter. In the case of water

and glass, water is strongly “wetting”. The contact angle is less
than 90o and Pc must be positive.
Effect of Wettability
The wettability strongly affects capillary phenomena:
1. If the fluid is “wetting” with 0   C  90 (strongly adhesive
fluid)in–thesay
tube water in“rise”).
(the capillary glass tube:
Patm
Wetting fluid has positive capillary
pressure and fluid rise h in tube is
supported by this differential.
(FWL) 2 cos 
PC  gh 
r
• The higher the interfacial tension  and the smaller

the tube radius r , the greater will be the capillary
rise height h .
2. If the fluid is “non-wetting” with 90   C  180 (weakly
adhesive fluid) – say mercury in glass tube:
the mercury must develop, before it can enter the tube.
Patm
Pressure needed for non-wetting
fluid (i.e., mercury) to enter tube
with this radius r :
2 cos 
PC  gh 
r
• If tube is lowered slowly, the minimum pressure

needed for Hg to enter the tube will be Pc .
• The smaller the tube radius, the greater will be this
“entry pressure” and the larger will be the “fall” h .
3. If the fluid is neither “wetting” nor “non-wetting” then
the contact angle  C  90o :
• The fluid level in the tube will stay at the free surface
level, neither rising nor falling in the tube.

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April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 1

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• At closer separations, this becomes a repulsive

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• If this PE is plotted versus atomic separation r the plot

ro is a stable equilibrium separation for solids or liquids.

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2. Fluids cannot resist a shear stress and the different

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 8

mass [M] kg (kilogram)

length [L] m (metre)

time [T] s (second)

temperature [] K (kelvin)

amount of substance [N] mol (mole)

electric current [I] A (ampere)

luminous intensity [J] cd (candela)

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 9

force newton N kg m/s2

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 10

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 11

An (atm) is not the same as a (bar) – see below:

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 12

PAbsolute  601.325 kN/m 2 absolute PGauge  500 kN/m 2 gauge

PAtmospheric  101.325 kN/m 2 absolute

Absolute zero pressure

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 13

either case “stress” means force divided by area:

• Pressure acts perpendicularly to

 For shear stress: the stress acts

• Viscosity is sometimes measured in poise (P) or

• In terms of SI units the centipoise (cP) is equivalent to

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 15

The density of any substance depends on temperature and

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 16

face of the prism. The prism is not accelerating, so that

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 18

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 19

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 20

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 21

The hydrostatic pressure P2 at a deeper level: is the pressure

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 23

P1 P2  Thus, there is no component

The forces acting horizontally must sum to zero as follows:

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 24

A diver swims down from the surface to the seafloor

Calculate the change in pressure between the surface and

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 25

• Calculate this pressure differential:

• Write down the pressure at any depth “2” with respect

• Convert this to (barg):

• Use the barometer to calculate atmospheric pressure:

• Convert pressure on seafloor to absolute pressure:

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 27

Apply the hydrostatic pressure equation to find the

Apply the hydrostatic pressure equation to find the

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 29

This result is fairly intuitive – nevertheless, it has

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 30

Key heights are as indicated in the diagram above.

April 2016 v3 B48BB © Heriot-Watt University 31

• The pressure at point “B” in the right hand limb of the