Ray Tracing

A radio signal will typically encounter multiple objects

and will be reflected, diffracted, or scattered
These are called multipath signal components
• Represent wavefronts as simple particle

• Geometry determines received signal from each

signal component

• Typically includes reflected rays, can also

include scattered and diffracted rays

• Requires site parameters

• Geometry
• Dielectric properties

• Error is smallest when the receiver is many

wavelengths from the nearest scatterer and when
all the scatterers are large relative to a
wavelength
• Accurate model under these conditions
• Rural areas
• City streets when the TX and RX are close to
the ground
• Indoor environments with adjusted
diffraction coefficients
• If the TX, RX, and reflectors are all immobile,
characteristics are fixed
• Otherwise, statistical models must be used
 Two – Ray Model
Used when a single ground reflection dominates the
multipath effects.

Approach:
• Use the free – space propagation model on
each ray
• Apply superposition to find the result
    j 2
l
 j 2
x  x'   
   G l u t  e 
R G r u t    e 
 j 2  f c t 
r 2  ray  t   Re    e 
 4  l x  x'  
   
x  x'  l
   time delay of the ground reflection
c relative to the LOS ray
product of the transmit and receive
Gl  Ga G b  antenna field radiation patterns in the
LOS direction
    j 2
l
 j 2
x  x'   
   G l u t  e 
R G r u t    e 
 j 2  f c t 
r 2  ray  t   Re    e 
 4  l x  x'  
   
product of the transmit and receive
Gr  Gc Gd  antenna field radiation patterns
corresponding to x and x’, respectively
R = Ground reflection coefficient
    j 2
l
 j 2
x  x'   
   G l u t  e 
R G r u t    e 
 j 2  f c t 
r 2  ray  t   Re    e 
 4  l x  x'  
   

Delay spread = delay between the LOS ray and the

reflected ray
x  x'  l
 
c
    j 2
l
 j 2
x  x'   
   G l u t  e 
R G r u t    e 
 j 2  f c t 
r 2  ray  t   Re    e 
 4  l x  x'  
   

If the transmitted signal is narrowband wrt the delay spread

  B 1
u  u t   u t   
    j 2
l
 j 2
x  x'   
   G l u t  e 
R G r u t    e 
 j 2  f c t 
r 2  ray  t   Re    e 
 4  l x  x'  
   
2
2  j 
   Gl R Gr e
P r  Pt   
 4   l x  x'
x  x'  l phase difference between the two
  2  
 received signal components
d = Antenna separation
h t = Transmitter height
h r = Receiver height

   
2 2
x  x'  l  ht  hr d 2
 ht  hr d2
    
2 2
x  x'  l  ht  hr d 2
 ht  hr d2

When d is large compared to h t + h r :

x  x'  l
  2  Expand into a Taylor series

x  x'  l 4 ht hr
  2  
 d
The ground reflection coefficient is given by
sin   Z
R
sin   Z
cos 2  vertical polarization
Z r 
r
Z  r  cos 2  horizontal polarization

 r  15 for ground, pavement, etc...

 For very large d:

x  x'  l  d ,   0 , G l  G r , R   1
2 2
  Gl   4 ht hr  2
 Gl ht hr 
Pr      Pt    Pt
 4  d     
2
d  d

   
Pr dBm  Pt dBm  10 log 10 G l  20 log 10 h t h r  40 log 10  d 
 2
 Gl ht hr 
Pr    Pt
 
2
d

• As d increases, the received power

• Varies inversely with d 4
• Independent of 
 f = 900 MHz
R=-1
h t = 50 m

Gl = 1 hr=2m

Gr=1
P t = 0 dBm
 The path can be divided
into three segments
1. d < h t
• The two rays add
constructively
• Path loss is slowly
increasing
1
• Path loss 
d 2  h t2

 
2
l  d  ht  hr
2

1 1
 2 for h t  h r
l 2
d  h t2
 2. h t < d c
• Wave experiences
constructive and
destructive interference
• Small – scale (Multipath)
fading
• If power is averaged in
this area, the result is a
piecewise linear
approximation
3. d c < d
• Signal power falls off by d – 4
• Signal components only combine destructively
 To find d c , set

x  x'  l 4 ht hr
  2   
 d
4 ht hr
dc 


2
• In segment 1, d < h t power falls off by 1/ h t
• In segment 2, h t < d < d c power falls off by – 20
db/decade
• In segment 3, d c < d, power falls off by – 40
db/decade
• Cell sizes are typically much less than d c and
power falls off by 1/ h t2
 Problem 2 – 5
Find the critical distance, d c , under the two – ray model
for a large macrocell in a suburban area with the base
station mounted on a tower or building (h t = 20 m), the
receivers at height h r = 3 m, and f c = 2 GHz. Is this a
good size for cell radius in a suburban macrocell? Why
or why not?
Solution
c 3  10 8
   0.15 m
f 2  10 9

dc 
4 ht hr

 4   20   3 
 1.6 km
 0.15
 Ten – Ray Model (Dielectric Canyon)

• Assumptions:
• Rectilinear streets
• Buildings along both sides of the street
• Transmitter and receiver heights close to street level
• 10 rays incorporate all paths with 1, 2, or 3 reflections
• LOS (line of sight)
• GR (ground reflected)
• SW (single wall reflected)
• DW (double wall reflected
• TW (triple wall reflected)
• WG (wall – ground reflected)
• GW (ground – wall reflected)
 Overhead view of 10 – ray model
  l xi
 
 
 j 2  j 2
   G l u t  e  9 R Gxi u t   i e 
 j 2  f c t 
r 10  ray  t   Re  
i
 e 
 4  l i 1 xi  
   

x i = path length of the i th reflected ray

xi  l Product of the transmit and
i  Gxi  receive antenna gains of the i th
c
ray
Assume a narrowband model such that


u t   u t   i  for all i

 j  i 2
2
   Gl 9 Ri Gxi e
Pr  Pt 
   
 4  l i 1 xi

xi  l
 i  2 

• Power falloff is proportional to d -2

• Multipath rays dominate over the ground reflected

rays that decay proportional to d - 4
 General Ray Tracing

• Models all signal components

– Reflections
– Scattering
– Diffraction

• Requires detailed geometry and dielectric

properties of site
– Site specific
• Similar to Maxwell, but easier math
• Computer packages often used
• The GRT method uses geometrical optics to trace
the propagation of the LOS and reflected signal
components
Shadowing: Diffraction and Spreading

Diffraction

• Diffraction occurs when the transmitted signal

"bends around" an object in its path

• Most common model uses a wedge which is

asymptotically thin
• Fresnel knife – edge diffraction model
For h small wrt d and d', the signal must travel an
additional distance  d
h 2 d  d'
d 
2 d d'
2  d 
The phase shift is    v2
 2
2 d  d ' 
v h
 d d'
 2 d  d '  is called the Fresnel – Kirchhoff
v h
 d d' diffraction parameter

Approximations for the path loss relative to LOS are

L v  dB  20 log 10 0.5  0.62 v   0.8  v  0

 20 log 10 0.5 e  0.95 v  0 v 1

 20 log 10 0.4  0.1184   0.38  0.1v 
2
1  v  2.4
 
 0.225 
 20 log 10   v  2 .4
 v 
 Scattering

  j 2
s  s'

  Gs  e 
j 2 f c t 
r  t   Re u  t    3
e 


 4   2 s s' 

  
Pr dBm  Pt dBm  10 log 10 G s  20 log 10     10 log 10  
 30 log 10  4    20 log 10  s   20 log 10  s' 
• Okumura model
• Empirically based (site/freq specific)
• Awkward (uses graphs)

• Hata model
• Analytical approximation to Okumura model

• Cost 136 Model:

• Extends Hata model to higher frequency (2 GHz)

• Walfish/Bertoni:
• Cost 136 extension to include diffraction from
rooftops
 Simplified Path – Loss Model

d 0 
P r  Pt K  
d 
d 
Pr dBm  Pt dBm  K dB  10  log 10  
 d 0 
K = dimensionless constant that depends on the
antenna characteristics and the average channel
attenuation
d 0 = reference distance for the antenna far field
 = path – loss exponent

LOS, 2 – ray model, Hata model, and the COST

extension all have this basic form
Generally valid where d > d 0
d 0 = 1 – 10 m indoors
= 10 – 100 m outdoors

K dB  20 log 10
4 d 0

General approach:
• Take data at three values of d
• Solve for K, d o , and 