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Richard T. Schaefer

SOCIOLOGY:
A Brief Introduction
Seventh Edition

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

 chapter
UNDERSTANDING
1
SOCIOLOGY
CHAPTER OUTLINE

•What is Sociology?
•What is Sociological Theory
•The Development of Sociology
•Major Theoretical Perspectives
•Applied and Clinical Sociology
•Developing a Sociological Imagination
•Careers in Sociology
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A Look Ahead
█ Sociology
– How did sociology develop?
– In what ways does it differ from other
social sciences?
– Does it relate to other social sciences?
– Who are the pioneers?
– What are the three theoretical
perspectives sociologists use?
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What is Sociology?
█ Sociology: Scientific study of social
behavior in human groups
█ Focus on:
– How relationships influence people’s
attitudes and behavior
– How societies develop and change

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The Sociological
Imagination
█ C. Wright Mills describes sociological
imagination as

An awareness of the the ability to view

relationship between one’s society as an
an individual and the outsider would,
wider society, and… without one’s limited
experiences and
cultural biases

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The Sociological
Imagination
█ Looks beyond a limited understanding of
human behavior
– View the world
and its people in
a new way
– See through a
broader lens

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Sociology and Science

█ Science: body of knowledge obtained by
methods based on systematic observation

– Natural Science: – Social Science:

study of physical study of social
features of nature features of humans
and the ways they and the ways they
interact and change interact and change

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Sociology and Science

█ Study the influence that society has on
people’s attitudes and behavior

█ Seek to understand ways in which people

interact and shape society

█ Examine social relationships with others

scientifically

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Sociology and Common Sense

█ Sociologists do not accept something as
fact because “everyone knows it”
– Each piece of information must be tested,
recorded, and analyzed

Money is the root of all evil

Love knows no reason

Disasters create panic

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Figure 1-1: Poverty Rates in

Hurricane Katrina Disaster Area

Source: Bureau of the Census 2005g.

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What Is
Sociological Theory?
█ Theory
– Set of statements that seeks to explain
problems, actions, or behavior

– Effective theories have explanatory and

predictive power

– Theories are never a final statement about

human behavior

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The Development
of Sociology
█ Philosophers/religious authorities of
ancient and medieval societies made
observations of human behavior
– Did not test or verify
█ European theorists made pioneering
contributions to development of science
of human behavior

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Early Thinkers

█ Auguste Comte 1798–1857

– Believed systematic investigation of
behavior was needed to improve society
– Coined term “sociology”

█ Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)

– Studied social behavior in Britain and U.S.
– Emphasized impact economy, law, trade,
health, and population could have on social
problems
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Early Thinkers

█ Herbert Spencer 1820–1903

– Studied “evolutionary” change in society
█ Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)
– Developed fundamental thesis to help
explain all forms of society
• Behavior must be understood within larger social
context
Anomie: loss of direction felt in a society when social
control of individual behavior becomes ineffective
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Early Thinkers

█ Max Weber (1864–1920)

– To fully comprehend behavior, we must learn
the subjective meaning people attach to
their actions
• Employ verstehen (understanding; insight)

Ideal Type: construct for

evaluating specific cases

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Early Thinkers

█ Karl Marx (1818-1883)

– Society fundamentally divided between two
classes that clashed in pursuit of interests
– Worked with Engels
– Emphasized group
identification and Working class should
associations that overthrow existing
influence one’s class system
place in society

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Early Thinkers

█ Charles Horton Cooley 1864–1929

– Used sociological perspective to look at
face-to-face groups such as families, gangs,
and friendship networks
█ Jane Addams 1860–1935
– Combined intellectual inquiry, social service
work, and political activism

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Early Thinkers

█ Robert Merton 1910–2003

– Combined theory and research
– Developed frequently cited explanation of
deviant behavior
Macrosociology: Microsociology:
concentrates on stresses study of
large-scale small groups, often
phenomena or through experimental
entire civilization means
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Table 1-1: Sections of the American

Sociological Association
Aging and the Life Course Marxist Sociology
Alcohol, Drugs, and Tobacco Mathematical Sociology
Animals and Society Medical Sociology
Asia and Asian America Mental Health
Children and Youth Methodology
Collective Behavior and Social Movements Organizations, Occupations, and Work
Communications and Information Technologies Peace, War, and Social Conflict
Community and Urban Sociology Political Economy of the World-System
Comparative and Historical Sociology Political Sociology
Crime, Law, and Deviance Population
Culture Race, Gender, and Class
Economic Sociology Racial and Ethnic Minorities
Education Rationality and Society
Emotions Religion
Environment and Technology Science, Knowledge, and Technology
Ethnomethodology and Conversational Analysis Sex and Gender
Family Sexualities
History of Sociology Social Psychology
International Movements Sociological Practice
Labor and Labor Movements Teaching and Learning
Latino/a Sociology Theory
Law
Source: American Sociological Association 2005a.
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Major Theoretical Perspectives

█ Three general views of society

– Functionalist perspective
– Conflict perspective
– Interactionist perspective

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Functionalist Perspective

█ Emphasizes that parts of a society are

structured to maintain its stability
– Talcott Parsons (1902 – 1972) key
contributor
– Viewed society as vast network of
connected parts, each of which helps to
maintain the system as a whole

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Functionalist Perspective

– Manifest Functions: institutions are open,

stated, conscious functions that
involve intended, recognized,
consequences of an aspect of society
– Latent Functions: unconscious or
unintended functions that may reflect
hidden purposes of an institution
– Dysfunctions: element or process of a
society that may actually disrupt the social
system or disrupt its stability
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Conflict Perspective

█ Assumes social behavior is best

understood in terms of conflict or
tension between competing groups
█ The Marxist View: conflict is part of
everyday life in all societies
– Conflict theorists are more “radical” and
“activist” than functionalists

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Conflict Perspective

█ An African American View: W. E. B.

DuBois
– Conducted research to assist the struggle
for a racially egalitarian society
– Believed knowledge essential to combating
prejudice and achieving tolerance and
justice
– In-depth studies of urban life

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Feminist Perspective

█ Views inequity in gender as central to all

behavior and organization
█ Sometimes allied with conflict theory

█ Also focuses on micro-level relationships,

just as interactionists do

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Interactionist Perspective

█ Generalizes about everyday forms of

social interaction to understand society
as a whole
█ Sociological framework for viewing

humans as living in a world of meaningful

objects
Nonverbal communication: can include many
gestures, facial expressions, and postures

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Interactionist Perspective

█ George Herbert Mead (1863—1931)

█ Erving Goffman (1922—1982)
– Dramaturgical approach: people seen as
theatrical performers

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Figure 1-3: Enforcing symbols:

The NBA Dress Code

Source: Crowe and Herman 2005:a23.

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The Sociological Approach

█ Gain broadest understanding of society

by drawing on all major perspectives,
noting where they overlap or where they
diverge
█ Each perspective offers unique insights

into the same issue

█ A researcher’s work always will be guided

by his or her theoretical viewpoint

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Table 1-2: Sociological Major

Perspectives

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Applied and Clinical Sociology

█ Applied Sociology: █ Clinical Sociology:

use of the discipline
of sociology with the
intent of yielding
practical applications
for human behavior
and organizations
facilitating change
by altering social
relationships or
restructuring social
institutions

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Developing a Sociological
Imagination
█ Theory in Practice
█ Research in Action
█ Thinking Globally

– Globalization: worldwide integration of

government policies, cultures, social
movements, and financial markets through
trade and the exchange of ideas

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Developing a Sociological
Imagination
█ The Significance of Social Inequality
– Social inequality: condition in which
members of society have differing amounts
of wealth, prestige, or power
█ Speaking Across Race, Gender, and
Religious Boundaries
█ Social Policy Throughout the World

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Careers in Sociology

█ Number of students graduating with a

degree in sociology has risen steadily
– Provides strong liberal arts background for
entry-level positions
• Business
• Social services
• Foundations
• Community organizations
• Law enforcement
• Government
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Figure 1-4: Sociology Degrees
Conferred in the
United States by Gender

Source: American Sociological Association 2005c.

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Figure 1-5: Occupational Fields of

Sociology BA/MA Graduates

Source: Schaefer 1998b.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.