Fundamentals of AUTOTRONICS

AL-BALQA’ APPLIED UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Dr. Suleiman Abu-Ein 1

DEFINITION : ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
When we speak of “electronic systems” we are referring to systems that use
electronic components such as sensors and modules to operate or control the
functions of a system.

INTRODUCTION :
Today’s vehicles contain many electronically controlled and
operated systems; and the number of systems controlled
and operated electronically increases every year.
Electronics have enabled manufacturers to design and
produce vehicles that offer:
- improved fuel economy.
- lower emission outputs.
- improved powertrain performance (for example, easier cold
starts and smoother acceleration).
- improved steering and suspension systems.
- more accurate driving and vehicle information systems.
- improved safety devices.
- increased operator comfort.

ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS :
The following list includes many of the systems where electronics are found on
today’s vehicles:
- Restraint Systems; )‫(أنظمة الكبح‬
- Passive and Air Bag;
- Electronic Message Center;
- Electronic Instrumentation;
- Speed Control;
- Anti-Lock Brakes
- Powertrain - Engine and Transmission,
- Remote Keyless and Illuminated Entry Systems; )‫( ُمضاءة‬
- Communication and Entertainment Systems; )‫( أنظمة الرفاهية‬
- Heating and Air Conditioning / Climate Control Systems;
- Air Suspension Systems;
- Power Steering Systems;
- Anti-Theft Systems;
Many vehicles are equipped with electronic body systems that are controlled
by Electronic Networking Systems.
ELECTRONICS - The control of systems or devices by the use of electrical

signals, various semiconductors and circuits

Electronic System Operation:
Knowledge of the role each
component plays in an electronic
system can help you diagnose
concerns. All electronic systems
operate similarly in that they:
 Receive system status and
operation information from input
devices.
 Process input information.
 Produce outputs that directly or
indirectly operate the system.
 INPUT - Information, in the form of
electrical signals, provided to an
electronic system’s module.
 PROCESSING - The process
performed by the module where
input information (signals) are
analyzed then actions (outputs)
are made according to the
module’s programming.
 OUTPUT - Commands issued by
the module of an electronic
system, based on programming,
to control devices/components in
the system.

PROCESSING
Processing information is the function
of the system’s module. The
module analyzes input information
and controls outputs based on
programming.
The easiest way to think of a
processing function is to compare
it to the way you process
information.
MODULE - The term commonly used

to identify the computer of an
electronic system.

Thought Process
For example, when driving, you are continually processing inputs. These
inputs include what you:
 see - other cars, traffic lights, pedestrians.
 hear - horns and sirens.
 feel - bumps/road conditions.
You react to these inputs in any number of ways. Your reactions can be
compared to the outputs commanded by a module in an electronic
system. For example, when you see a red traffic light (input) your mind
processes that information. You react (output) by applying the brake.

The processing functions in electronic systems are similar to the ways your
mind processes information. The system’s computer, or module, receives
information from a variety of inputs. Input information is then analyzed or
processed and the computer/module reacts to that information according to
its programming.
Climate Control System

For example, in an electronic climate control system, the module
receives information from a sensor that indicates the temperature
inside the vehicle. The module also uses other inputs, such as the
driver’s temperature selection. It uses this input information to
determine what response(s) (outputs), if any, to make.
• Is the temperature at the correct level?
• Should more heat be applied?
• Should the air conditioning system be activated?
The appropriate output selection is made according the module’s
programming.
To illustrate how this process works, let’s suppose that the driver
sets the vehicle’s temperature setting to 65’F, and it is currently
7O’inside of the vehicle. The module (processor) will “look” at the
temperature setting requested and the current temperature and
compare them. Since the car is warmer than the requested
temperature, the module reacts by changing blend door position until
the vehicle is at the desired temperature.

INPUT - Information, in the form of electrical signals,
provided to an electronic system module.
Input devices provide the system processor/module
with information about the function and condition of the
system.They communicate with the module in the form of
electrical signals (voltage).

Selected Electronic Engine Control Inputs and Outputs

The number of input devices used in a system depends on the amount
of information needed by the module to control the system. For example,
the Electronic Engine Control (EEC) system uses several inputs. The
Powertrain Control Module (PCM) needs information on system functions
and conditions such as:
• Engine Coolant Temperature;
• Intake Air Temperature;
• Engine Load;
• Engine Speed;
• Vehicle Speed;
• Exhaust Gas Oxygen Content.
These are just a few examples of inputs used by the PCM. The PCM
uses this information to determine how much fuel to inject, when to
fire the spark plugs and when to activate emission control systems.
 PCM - Powertrain Control Module. The computer/module used to

control the vehicle Power-train (engine and transmission) function.

Variable Assist Power Steering (VAPS) System Inputs
Vehicle Speed

In contrast, a variable assist power steering (VAPS)
system requires a single input. The input typically used in
a VAPS system is vehicle speed.
Regardless of the number of inputs used by a system, all
inputs share the same basic function:
1. To provide information the processor/module needs.
2. To operate the system.
In this example, the steering module uses this vehicle

speed input to determine the amount of hydraulic assist
required.

Outputs are the reactions of the module which are based on information
provided by inputs. The module controls outputs either directly or indirectly.
Components in electronic systems are controlled by the OUTPUT
signals from the electronic module. Therefore these components are
commonly referred to as OUTPUTS.
 OUTPUT - Commands issued by the module of an electronic system,

based
on programming, to control devices/components in electronic systems.
Direct Module Output - Fuel Injectors
When we refer to direct module
output devices, we refer to
components that are operated
)turned ON or OFF( “directly” by
The module.
For example, in an electronic
engine control system, the Power-
Train Control Module (PCM)
directly controls fuel injection.
The PCM contains the fuel injector
driver circuits - internal ground-
side switches or transistors that
turn the fuel injectors ON and OFF.
 DRIVER CIRCUITS – Transistor
circuits inside of a module that are
used to turn output devices ON and
OFF.

Direct Module Output - ABS System Warning Indicator Lamp
Another example of a direct module output is the signal sent by

the Anti-lock Brake Module that turns on the ABS Warning Indicator
Lamp when it detects a system fault. In this case, the module
provides a ground to the lamp circuit, thus completing the circuit.

Indirect Module Output - Cooling Fan Motor
Indirect module outputs are controlled by the module through devices such as
relays. Components that draw high current loads are generally controlled in this way. This
allows the module to control these components without having to handle large amounts of
current. For example, on some vehicles, the PCM controls the cooling fan indirectly. The
module uses inputs to determine when to activate the fan. If the PCM determines that the fan
must be turned ON, it provides a ground path that closes a normally open relay. When the
relay closes, power is available to the cooling fan motor.
Indirect outputs are used when a large operating current is required, for example,
controlling a motor. The motor circuit requires more amperage than the internal module
component can handle without burning out. For this case, the module uses a internal module
component to supply a small current to a relay, which in turn closes to complete the motor
circuit. This supplies the high current to the motor.

Indirect Module Output - Windshield Wiper Motor
Another example of an indirect module output is the signal sent by

the wiper module (or Generic Electronic Module {GEM}). The module
uses inputs to determine if the wipers will be activated. If the module
determines that the wipers must be turned on, it provides a ground
path that closes the normally open contacts of a relay. When the relay
closes, voltage is supplied to run the wiper motor.

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SIGNALS
There are two types of electrical signals used in electronically controlled
systems: Digital and Analog. Inputs and outputs communicate and function
using both types of electrical signals.
Digital Signals:
A digital signal is either ON or OFF. When viewed with an oscilloscope, a
digital signal generates a square wave pattern when it switches repeatedly.
Digital signals are produced by:
• ON/OFF Switches;
• Hall Effect Sensors;
• Optical Sensors
DIGITAL - An electrical signal with two states - ON and OFF.
Digital DC Signal Voltage “Wave”

Analog Signals:
An analog signal is variable. Voltage varies within a certain range over
time. When viewed with an oscilloscope, analog signals provide a
pattern that can vary over a range of voltages.
As shown below, Analog signals can either be AC or DC.
ANALOG - A voltage signal that can provide a range of voltage information.
DC - Direct Current.
AC - Alternating Current.

A device such as a Throttle
Position Sensor produces an
analog signal.
For example, the voltage value
output from a throttle position
sensor at idle is typically 1 .O volt
or less. The voltage gradually
increases as the throttle plate
opens.
Digital/Analog Signal Summary
Voltage signals from analog
sources can vary anywhere
between a minimum and
maximum value. Digital signals
only have two possible values –
ON or OFF.

Inputs, modules and outputs
SUMMARY
work together to control electronic
systems. These functions operate
much like the human mind.
Modules receive information
(inputs), analyze (process) this
information and act (output).
The following example, using a
Variable Assist Power Steering
System (VAPS), illustrates how
inputs, processing and outputs
function together.
System Description
The Variable Assist Power
Steering system used on the
Taurus varies the amount of power
assist provided. Under cruise
conditions where little steering
wheel assist is needed, minimal VAPS Steering System
assist is provided based on
vehicle speed.
However, at low speeds and during parking
maneuvers maximum power assist is needed.
This system electronically controls the amount
of power assist available based on vehicle
speed.
How It Works ?
The module receives input from a vehicle speed
sensor to determine if the vehicle is at cruise.
The module commands an increase in power
assist as vehicle speed decreases. In contrast,
the module calls for power assist to decrease
when vehicle speed increases.

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
TRANSISTORS
Introduction
A transistor is much like a relay in an electronic form. Relays are
Used whenever a current needs to be switched by a remote source. A
transistor can perform this function with greater speed and greater
reliability. To better explain how ,a transistor works, we will compare
its function to that of a relay performing the same task.
Simple transistors have three leads or terminals called EMITTER,
COLLECTOR, and BASE. The construction of a transistor determines
the
specific voltage polarity and application.
The two most common types of transistors are the “NPN” and the
“PNP”.
The “NPN” type is most commonly used in Ford PCMs to turn ground-
side Switched output devices (like fuel injectors and relays) ON and
OFF.

NPN Transistor Operation
Imagine the inside of an NPN
transistor as a relay and diode
combination. The transistor “relay”
switches to complete a circuit between
the collector and emitter whenever the
“relay” coil” is energized.
Notice how a “diode” is wired into the

transistor. Current can only flow from the
base through to the emitter (because of
the diode on the emitter leg). When the
transistor has the correct polarity and
level of voltage supplied to its
base/emitter path, it is said to be forward
biased. This condition causes the
transistor to switch ON and conduct from
the collector to the emitter. This
completes the circuit to the load.

Both a small control current and larger load current share
the common emitter terminal to ground. This means that the NPN
transistor can be used as a ground-side switch where Battery
Voltage (B+) has already been supplied to the output device. The
device only needs a ground (provided by the transistor) to operate.
Transistors can switch a load many times faster than a relay. They
are also much more reliable since they have no moving parts to fail
or wear out. No modern engine performance technician could
possibly imagine current electronic fuel injectors switched by
individual relays! Just as food for thought, do you suppose that relay
actuated fuel injectors could be reliable, durable and capable of
Performing at the speed of an automotive engine?
FORWARD BIASED - Voltage applied to a transistor in such a

manner that it causes the transistor to allow a large current flow
through it.

VOLTAGE DIVIDER CIRCUITS
Many input devices operate using a
Voltage Divider Circuit. Before we
identify and describe the functions,
operation, testing and applications of
input devices, you need to know how
voltage divider circuits operate.
Voltage divider circuits must operate
on a constant or steady state voltage,
so that the module always “sees” an
input signal under the same conditions.
Battery voltage varies between 8 and
15 Volts depending electrical system
load.
This change in battery voltage could be
mistaken for a change in the input
circuit even though the input itself did
not change.

To ensure accurate signals, a voltage regulator is included
in the module. The regulator supplies a steady voltage even if
the battery voltage varies. With the regulated circuit, the
module measures a constant voltage on the sensor circuit
even with normal changes in battery voltage. The steady
source voltage (typically 5 volts on Ford products) is referred
to as Reference Voltage or VREF. Using the reference
voltage
as a base line for comparison, the module can accurately
infer many things about system operation. Several examples
of this are provided in the input component descriptions
that follow.
The voltage sent to the sensor from the module is
commonly referred to as the Signal Voltage. The ground
provided by the module is commonly referred to as the Signal
Return.

VOLTAGE DIVIDER CIRCUIT - A circuit containing 2
or more resistors in series across a voltage source in
order to obtain a fraction of the supplied voltage.
REFERENCE VOLTAGE (VREF) - Voltage provided
by
a voltage regulator to operate sensors at a constant
level.
SIGNAL VOLTAGE - A dedicated circuit of an
electronic
system module that receives the electrical signal from
an input device.
SIGNAL RETURN - A dedicated ground circuit
provided Dr. Suleiman Abu-Ein 31
Divider Circuit Description When you measure voltage on the
power side of a load in a simple
circuit, your reading should indicate
the source voltage for that circuit.
Exceptions are instances where you
have an open or unintentional voltage
drop (perhaps a high resistance
switch contact) in the circuit. Most
modules contain an internal voltmeter
on the power side of their reference
voltage circuits for each input. Using
Ohm’s Law (V = I x R) and our
knowledge of series circuits, we
expect those internal voltmeters to
always read VREF, regardless of the
input device’s actions. For example,
Module Supplying a Reference Voltage changing the resistance of our input
device from 10 to 40 ohms has no
effect on the voltage measured at the
module. It remains at 5 volts.
Voltage Divider Circuit
To make these circuits useful, modules often include an additional

load (in the form of a resistor) between the VREF source and the
module’s internal voltmeter. Changing the resistance of our input
device now affects the voltage measured at the module. This is
referred to as a voltage divider circuit. Using a 5 volt VREF and a 10
ohm load in the module, a 10 ohm resistance at the input device will
result in 2.5 volts measured at the module.
Change the input device resistance to 40 ohms and the voltage
measured at the Module changes to 4 volts.
This is a real life example of Ohm’s Law: E=lxR

Using input devices that change resistance based on
component position, temperature, exposure to light, etc.,
allows circuits to provide module software with a tremendous
volume of fast, accurate information. Examples of these
types of input devices include the thermistors, photoresistors,
and potentiometers.
Current Limiting Resistor
The resistor in the voltage divider circuit performs another
function. If the input circuit experiences a short to ground
between the module and the input device, the internal
resistor serves as a load and reduces the potential of high
current damaging the module.
This is why this internal resistor is sometimes referred to as a
current limiting resistor.
CURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR - A resistor used in a voltage divider
circuit
to reduce the input voltage and to protect the circuit from excessive current
draw caused by a shorting condition.
SYSTEM INPUTS
INPUTS
Types of Inputs:
There are eight main types of input devices
used on today’s vehicles. These devices are
commonly referred to as sensors:
1- Switches 2- Phototransistors
3- Hall Effect Sensors 4- Thermistors
5- Potentiometers 6- Photoresistors
7- Variable Reluctance Sensors
8- Piezoelectric Sensors
Inputs can be classified by the type of electrical
signal they produce:
1. Digital DC; 2.Analog DC; 3. Analog AC
Digital DC
Input devices that produce digital DC signals
are:
- Switches - Phototransistors Digital DC Signal
- Hall Effect Sensors

Analog DC
Input devices that produce analog
DC signals include:
- Thermistors;
- Potentiometers;
- Photoresistors; Analog DC Signal
- Piezoelectric Sensors (Pressure
Sensors).
Analog AC
Input devices that produce analog
AC signals include:
- Variable Reluctance Sensors;
- Piezoelectric Sensors (Knock
Sensors). Analog AC Signal

1. SWITCHES
Switches control the flow of current in an electrical circuit.
Because they are either ON or OFF, switches are digital DC
voltage devices.
Switch Functions:
Switches are used to provide ON/OFF input information to
the module in an electronic system. For example, in this
Speed Control system, the switch closes the circuit when the
brake pedal is applied. The module interprets this as a
“Brake ON” signal.
On some speed control systems, the switch opens the
circuit when the brake is applied. Always consult the
appropriate EVTM for the system you are servicing.

Switch Operation
Brake ON/OFF Switch Operation

Using the Speed Control system example, the Brake ON/OFF (BOO) switch simply
opens or closes an input circuit to the module. In this case when the brake pedal is
NOT applied, the switch is open; no voltage signal is received by the module (See
“Brake Not Applied” Graphic above).
When the brake pedal is applied, the switch closes and a 12 volt signal is received
by the module. The module is programmed to disengage the speed control when this
input is received (See “Brake Applied” Graphic above).
BRAKE ON/OFF SWITCH (BOO) - Used to provide brake applied data to an electronic
system’s module.

Power Steering Pressure Switch
Operation
Switches can be used on the ground-

side of circuits as well as on the
power side of circuits.
One example of a ground-side switch
is the Power Steering Pressure (PSP)
Switch used on some power steering
systems.
The PSP switch closes when power
Steering pressure is high (during
parking maneuvers for example).
When the switch closes, a circuit to
ground (through the Signal Return
circuit of the PCM) is completed. The
PCM identifies the drop of voltage
resulting from the closing of the
switch and increases engine idle
speed to prevent stalling.

Switch Testing
Switches can be tested by:
1. Checking continuity through
the contacts when the switch is
in the closed position.
2. Measure voltage drop across
the switch.
The Service Manual or Powertrain
Control/Emissions Diagnostic
(PC/ED) Manual provides specific
test directions for the various
switches in each electronic
system.
Refer to these procedures when
performing tests.
Continuity tests may pass a switch
with poor contacts. A voltage
drop test is the best way to
determine if a switch is operating
properly.
Powertrain Control/Emissions Diagnosis Manual (PC/ED) - Diagnostic
and service information resource containing system description,
operation, diagnosis and testing procedures for Electronic Engine
Control Systems.
Switch Devices
A few examples of switch
applications found in electronic
systems include:
1. Brake ON/OFF (BOO)
Switch
2. Brake Pressure Switch;
3. Air Suspension Switch;
4. A/C Low Pressure Switch;
5. Power Steering Pressure
Switch.
These are only a few of the
many switches found in Speed Control System Schematic
electronic systems.

A Phototransistor is a digital DC 2. PHOTOTRANSISORS
device that operates like a
simple switch. However, instead
of being mechanically controlled,
phototransistors and other
optical sensors are activated by
light.
Unlike standard transistors,
Phototransistors have only two
leads (emitter and collector)
wired into a circuit. When light
strikes the base of the transistor,
the transistor is forward biased
and completes the circuit.
without light the circuit opens.
The module reads 5 volts with
the circuit open, and 0 volts with
the circuit closed.

There are several advantages to using a
phototransistor in place of a mechanical switch:
1. Faster operation and response;
2. No contacts to wear or corrode.
PHOTOTRANSISTOR - An electronic device that

completes a circuit like an NPN transistor when
exposed to light.
FORWARD BIASED - Voltage applied to a transistor
in such a manner that it causes the transistor to
allow a large current flow through it.

Sample Phototransistor Application and Waveform
Some Optical Sensors

include a Light Emitting
Diode (LED) positioned to
shine on the
phototransistor.
In the example shown, a
rotating disc with slots or
holes is located between
The LED and
phototransistor. The Light
alternately strikes the
phototransistor as the disc
turns, creating an ON and
OFF circuit to ground.

Testing Phototransistors
You can test a phototransistor by monitoring/measuring electrical
output (voltage) as the device is operated. Voltage output should
change )between VREF and 0( as Light “strikes” the photocell. Some
phototransistors may take a moment to switch, so be patient and
give the component time to react when testing. Pinpoint tests in the
Service Manual or PC/ED Manual provide specific testing
instructions.
Phototransistor System Applications
Phototransistors are used as steering wheel rotation sensors in
Electronic Variable Orifice (EVO) Steering Systems. They are
sometimes used in Electronic Engine Control (EEC) systems to
provide
crankshaft and/or camshaft position information for ignition and fuel
control.
OPTICAL SENSORS - Input sensors/devices that operate using light.

LED - Light Emitting Diode.
Electronic Engine Control (EEC) - An electronic engine control
system.
3. HALL EFFECT SENSORS
Sample Hall Effect Sensor Device
Function
Hall Effect sensors are devices used to measure RPM
(frequency)
and may provide information on position of moving parts. They
provide a digital DC signal to the module.
Hall Effect Sensor Operation
Hall Effect sensors operate electrically like a simple switch.
Magnetism, instead of mechanical action, is used to open and close
the circuit.
Hall Effect sensors feature a stationary permanent magnet positioned
near the Hall device. When the Hall element is exposed to the
magnetic field, the circuit is completed. When the Hall element is
shielded from the magnetic field, the circuit opens. The magnet is
shielded by vanes positioned on a rotating wheel or cup.
Hall Effect sensors are connected like the switch in a ground-side

switch input circuit. Hall Effect sensors require external voltage
(usually battery voltage) to operate.
In an Electronic Engine Control system, a Hall Effect sensor can be
used to create a square wave signal that indicates crankshaft RPM
and position.
HALL EFFECT - A process where current is passed through a

semiconductor at the same time as a magnetic field for the purpose of
producing a small voltage in the semiconductor.

Hall Effect Device with an Open Magnetic Field
The signal from the Hall Effect sensor is LOW

(0 volts) when the window in the rotating cup allows
the magnetic field to reach the Hall element. The
module input circuit is grounded through the Hall
Effect device.

Hall Effect Device Shielded from Magnetic Field
The signal from the Hall Effect sensor is HIGH (VREF) when
the vane passes between the magnet and the Hall element,
shielding it from the magnetic field. With no voltage at
transistor’s base, the circuit is open and no ground is available
for the module’s input circuit.

Testing a Hall Effect Device
When testing Hall Effect devices, there are several circuits that must
be checked. These include:
1. Power to the Hall element; 2. Grounds; 3. Switching in the signal circuit.
The signal circuit for Hall Effect devices may use either VREF or battery
voltage, depending on vehicle application. Consult the proper vehicle
service publications to determine the appropriate voltage for the
circuits you are testing.

Hall Effect Sensor System Applications
Hall Effect sensors may be used in the following systems:
1. Ignition;
2. Electronic Engine Control;
3. Air Suspension - Older vehicles;
4. Memory Seat.
Hall Effect Sensor Devices
Common Hall Effect sensor devices include:
1. Crankshaft Position (CKP) Sensor – Older Electronic Engine
Control Systems;
2. Camshaft Position (CMP) Sensor - Electronic Engine Control
Systems;
3. Vehicle Speed Sensor (VSS) - Contour/Mystique;
4. Suspension Height Systems – Early Continentals.

4. THERMISTORS
Sample Thermistor Application
Thermistors are variable resistors that provide temperature

information to a module in the form of an analog DC signal.
Thermistor Functions
In a climate control system for example, the EATC module

uses in-vehicle temperature information to control the
heating and air conditioning levels.
In an Electronic Engine Control system, the PCM uses

engine coolant and intake air temperature inputs to control
fuel injection and spark timing.
THERMISTOR - A resistor that changes resistance with temperature.

EATC - Electronic Automatic Temperature Control.

Sample Thermistor Application

Effect of Temperature on
Thermistor Resistance Thermistor Operation
Thermistors are made of a
special resistive material
that is very sensitive to
changes in temperature.
As temperature changes,a
thermistors resistance
changes. Specifically,
as temperature increases,
the resistance of the
thermistor decreases; as
temperature decreases,
thermistor resistance
increases.

This change of resistance is used in a voltage
divider circuit to produce a variable DC voltage
that indicates temperature.
This variable voltage begins as five volts, which
passes through a current limiting resistor in the
processor and then is wired to the external
thermistor.

Thermistor Reaction To a Change In Temperature
As the resistance of the

thermistor increases (as
a result of cold
temperatures), the
voltage drop across it
increases.
The module sees less
voltage at high
temperatures due to the
decrease in the
thermistor’s resistance.

THERMISTOR TISTING
There are two practical ways to test thermistors:
I. Measure the resistance of the thermistor device over a

range of temperatures.
2. Measure the voltage output on the thermistor’s signal
circuit.
The important thing to remember is that the resistance or
voltage reading has a relationship to temperature.
You will most likely perform thermistor tests in response
to a diagnostic routine or pinpoint tests found in the service
manual or PC/ED Manual.
These diagnostic routines and pinpoint tests provide you
with the resistance and/or voltage operating ranges of the
thermistor. Refer to these specifications when testing.

Thermistor System Applications
Thermistor sensors are commonly found in:

1. Electronic Engine Control (EEC) Systems;
2. Electronic Automatic Temperature Control (EATC) Systems;
3. Electronic Automatic Transmissions.
Thermistor Devices
Some common thermistor devices include:

1. Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT) Sensor (Electronic Engine
Control System);
2. Intake Air Temperature (IAT) Sensor (Electronic Engine Control
System);
3. Transmission Fluid Temperature (TFT) Sensor ( Electronic Engine
Control System);
4. Vane Air Temperature (VAT) Sensor ( Association Vehicle Electronic
Engine Control Systems);
5. In-Car Temperature Sensor (EATC Systems);
6. Ambient Temperature Sensor (EATC Systems);
7. Engine Oil Temperature (EOT) Sensor (7.3L Diesel Electronic
Engine Control System).
5. PHOTORESISTORS
Photoresistors are variable

resistors that provide
information about light
intensity to a module in the
form of an analog DC signal.
Photoresistor Operation
As the level of light reaching a
photoresistor increases, the
sensor’s resistance
decreases.
Like a thermistor,
photoresistors are wired into a
voltage divider circuit. The
control module Monitors
changes in signal voltage
adjusts its outputs
accordingly.
Photoresistor Testing
There are two ways to test Photoresistors:

1. Measure the resistance of the device through a range
of light conditions.
2. Measure the voltage output on the sensor’s signal
circuit.
Photoresistor Applications
Photoresistors are used in Autolamp applications.
PHOTORESlSTOR - A resistor that changes resistance

in response to light.

6. POTENTIOMETERS
Potentiometer Functions
A Potentiometer is a type of variable resistor (analog
DC device) commonly used to convert mechanical
position into an electrical signal.
They are used in electronic systems where the module
needs to determine the position of a Component.
Potentiometers are typically composed of a resistive
material and moveable wiper with the following
electrical connections:
1. reference voltage (VREF)
2. signal return (ground)
3. signal voltage
POTENTIOMETER - A variable resistor device with a
moveable wiper that moves up and down theresistive
element.
SIGNAL RETURN - A dedicated ground circuit provided Potentiometer Connections
by the module of an electronic system.
SIGNAL VOLTAGE - A dedicated circuit of an electronic
system’s module that receives the electrical signal from
an input device.
Potentiometer Operation Voltage is applied to one end of
the resistive material. The other
end of the resistive material is
connected to a signal return
circuit (ground).
The moveable wiper arm in the
potentiometer is attached to the
signal voltage circuit. The tip of
the wiper contacts the resistive
material. The wiper arm follows the
movement of the component it is
monitoring.
As the wiper moves, the voltage
signal increases or decreases.
Modules may not require an
internal current limiting resistor to
perform the voltage divider
function in circuits where a
potentiometer performs the
voltage divider function. Therefore,
the potentiometer sensor itself
performs the function of a sensor
load and a current limiting resistor.
Potentiometer Sensor With A Voltage Divider Circuit
In some automotive systems, there are current limiting resistors that are
part of potentiometer sensor circuits. When this is the case, you will not
measure reference voltage (VREF) at the sensor.
Using the example in the figure below, let’s suppose that the module
supplies a VREF of 5 Volts, has an internal current limiting resistor of 5 Ω
and the resistance of the potentiometer sensor can range from 0 Ω to 20 Ω.

When the sensor is at the 0 Ω position, the module
will measure a voltage of 4 Volts.
When the potentiometer sensor is at its other
extreme (20 Ω ), the module will measure a
voltage of 0 Volts.
The chart next to the sample circuit drawing
shows how the voltage measured by the module
changes as the potentiometer wiper moves from
the 0 Ω to the 20 Ω position.

Potentiometer Testing
There are two methods for

testing potentiometers:
1. Measure the resistance
through the moveable wiper
at the signal connection.
2. Measure the voltage
output at the signal
connection with the circuit
“live.”
In either instance, the
resistance or voltage
reading is directly related to
the position of the
component it is monitoring.

Whether measuring resistance or voltage, you should
actuate/move the potentiometer wiper, or the device to
which it is attached, and observe the results. As the wiper
moves you will see the resistance or voltage change in
direct relationship to its movements.
Potentiometer devices are typically tested as part of a

diagnostic routine or pinpoint test found in the Service
Manual or PC/ED Manual. These publications provide
resistance and/or voltage operating ranges for the
potentiometer you are testing. Refer to these specifications
and follow test directions accordingly.

Potentiometer System Applications
Systems where potentiometers are typically used are:
1. Electronic Engine Control Systems;
2. EATC (Climate Control) Systems;
3. Memory Functions:
- Seats;
- Mirrors;
- Steering Wheel Position.
Potentiometer Devices
Some common potentiometer devices include:
1. Throttle Position Sensor (TPS) (Electronic Engine Control Systems);
2. Vane Air Flow (VAF) Meter ( Association Vehicle Electronic Engine
Control Systems);
3. Blend Door Position Sensors;
4. Temperature Controls;
5. Memory Seats and Mirrors.

7. VARIABLE RELUCTANCE SENSORS ‫مجسات الممانعة (المغناطيسية) المتغيرة‬
A variable reluctance sensor is an analog AC signal generating device.
It is also called a magnetic pickup because it uses magnetism to generate
its voltage signal.
Variable Reluctance Sensor Functions:
Variable reluctance sensors are used to provide position and speed
(frequency) input information.
Variable Reluctance Sensor Operation:
A variable reluctance sensor consists of a toothed trigger wheel - reluctor –
(made of iron), a permanent magnet, and a sensor coil.

The signal changes as the reluctor rotates through the
magnetic field. As the reluctor tooth approaches the magnet,
the magnetic field distorts and induces a positive voltage into
the sensor coil. As the reluctor tooth moves away from the
magnet, the magnetic field distorts in the opposite direction
and induces a negative voltage in the sensor coil.
Variable reluctance sensors produce an analog AC voltage
signal that varies with speed and sensor position (air gap).
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE SENSOR (VRS) - A component

whose
magnetic field can be varied by passing a reluctor through it.
FREQUENCY - The number of times an AC signal is repeated
in
a given period of time; typically cycles per second, measured
in Hertz.
RELUCTOR - A device passed through the magnetic field of a
sensor in order to produceDr.aSuleiman
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Testing Variable Reluctance Sensors
Variable Reluctance sensors generate an analog AC

voltage
which can be measured with an AC voltmeter or DVOM. The
AC voltage rises with the speed of the sensor ring/trigger
wheel.
Faster rotations produce more pulses and higher voltage.

For every tooth of the sensor ring, a corresponding AC wave
is produced. By counting the number of waves in a given time
frame (frequency), speed can be determined.
The signal is a sine wave and some diagnostic procedures

measure the frequency of this signal, since it is the primary
information provided by the sensor.

The AC analog signal can also be detected using an
oscilloscope. The signal appears as a saw-tooth sine wave.
Variable Reluctance sensors are also used to provide
information on component position.
Removing a tooth from the reluctor produces a signal

like the one shown. The PCM infers component position
from this change in signal.
Test procedures for variable reluctance sensors are

provided in vehicle Service Manuals and the PC/ED
Manual. When testing a variable reluctance sensor, follow
the diagnostic routine or pinpoint tests described in the
manual.
Excessive distance between the reluctor and magnet will result in lower
Voltage readings than expected for a given RPM. sensor air gap when
specified.
Variable Reluctance Sensor
System Applications:
Variable reluctance sensors are
used in:
1. Electronic Engine Control
Systems;
2. Anti-lock braking (ABS)
systems;
3. Speed control systems.
Variable Reluctance Sensor
Devices:
Typical Variable Reluctance
sensor devices include:
1. Crankshaft position sensors;
2. ABS wheel speed sensors;
3. Vehicle speed sensors.

8. PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
A Piezoelectric sensor is
an input device used to
detect vibration or
pressure. Depending on
application, these
devices
can produce one of
two types of signal:
1. Analog DC signal -
when used to detect
changes in pressure.
2. Analog AC signal –
when used to detect a
specific vibration
frequency.
Pressure Sensor Operation
When used as a pressure sensor, a piezoelectric device

changes resistance in response to pressure:
1. As pressure increases, so does the resistance.
2. At steady pressure, the resistance is constant.
3. As pressure decreases, resistance decreases.
The control module monitors changes in the signal circuit

to determine system condition. This signal takes an analog
DC form.
PIEZOELECTRIC - An electronic device capable of

generating a voltage when subjected to mechanical
pressure.

KNOCK SENSOR

Knock Sensor Operation
A Piezoelectric knock sensor contains a crystal
tuned to generate an AC voltage at a specific
frequency. This frequency is the same as that
produced by an engine operating at or near
engine “knock” conditions.
In the example shown above, a 2.5 volt carrier
voltage is provided to help keep the sensor’s
signal above the range of the electronic “noise”
produced during normal engine operation.

PIEZOELECTRINC SENSOR TESTING

Testing a Knock Sensor
You can measure the voltage output of a Piezoelectric sensor

with
an AC Voltmeter. The voltage reading observed will be directly
proportional to the pressure or vibration detected. Therefore, you
must create a vibration in order to produce voltage output. Service
publications contain directions and specifications for performing
knock sensor testing.
Piezoelectric Sensor System Applications And Devices

Piezoelectric pressure sensors are used in:
1.Power Steering Pressure (PSP) Sensor - Some Contour/Mystique
Models;
2. Air Conditioning Pressure (ACP) Sensor.
Piezoelectric knock sensors are used in:
1. Electronic Engine Control Systems -Ignition and Emission
Controls
2. Diesel Engine Electronic Engine Control Systems
MODULE OPERATION
Introduction
Modules are computers. As such, they are very complex electrical
components. We will discuss module operation only as it applies to our
purposes as automotive engineers.
Modules can only process digital DC voltage signals. Input signals must
be converted to digital signals before the microcomputer portion of the
module can interpret the information.

Once input signals are properly converted, the information is directed
to the microcomputer’s memory. There the microcomputer compares
and evaluates the information against its own programming.
This comparison and evaluation process allows the microcomputer to
select the best possible choices for system control. It should be noted
that the process of filtering and processing input signals, storing and
analyzing information and making decisions happens in a fraction of a
second - as quickly as 1/1000 of a second (one millisecond).
The memory sections within the microcomputer are the controlling
factors in logical processing of input information.
At the output stage, the microcomputer controls output circuitry –
output drivers – contained within the module.
MICROCOMPUTER - Refers to the internal components of an electronic

system’s module that are used in the processing of electrical signals.
MILLISECOND - 1/1000 of a second.
OUTPUT DRIVERS - Transistor devices within electronic modules that
control output current flow.
MEMORY - An electronic device used to store information electronically.

Lets take a simplified look at the typical electronic control
processor and see how information signals are used to make
control decisions.
The information signals, called inputs, provide conditions

existing outside the processor. These electrical signals
cause
the processor to direct knowledge of components, outside of
the processor (outputs) to perform certain tasks.
Information from inputs about certain conditions is

provided to the processor, which then powers outputs in
order to accomplish specific tasks.
A processor does not think or have intelligence - it’s like a
set of pre-wired relays that always does the same thing
when the same combination of input conditions are applied.
For example, a typical fog lamp relay uses switches and a
relay to operate the fog lamps. Since laws require that fog
lamps only come on with the headlamps, and only with
headlamps on low beams, a certain input combination is
required to turn on the fog lamps:
1. The headlamp switch must be in the headlamp position.
2. The combination switch must be on low beam.
Now the relay coil has power. The driver must complete
the relay coil circuit by closing the fog lamp switch.
If any switch in this circuit is not in the correct position the
fog lamps do not operate. Only the correct combination will
power the relay coil, close the contacts and, provide voltage
to the fog lamps. A processor is simply an expansion of this
type of circuit that can handle more input conditions and
control several outputs.

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTOR
Some monitored inputs are digital. These signal conditions can

be applied almost directly to the CPU because they are either on or
off.
They will either power, or not power, the electronic “relays” in the
CPU. Other inputs are analog. Once the ON/OFF threshold is
passed, a CPU electronic “relay” would still be either powered or not.

This results in a loss of valuable information about the
Range of the component monitored beyond the ON/OFF
threshold. In order to use this information, a special
integrated circuit called an Analog to Digital Converter
(ADC) is connected to the analog inputs.
The ADC encodes the range of the sensor voltage
values
into a set of CPU-usable digital DC voltage combinations
representing the sensor information. Now these digital
signals can be used to operate the electronic “relays” in
the CPU.
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) - An electronic device (or

circuit) used to convert analog electrical signals to digital
electronic signals.
Internal Processing
Inside the processor is a complex, integrated circuit called

the Central Processing Unit (CPU). This CPU is like a circuit
with many miniaturized relays, all wired in a particular fashion
to produce a voltage output whenever certain combinations of
input voltages exist. This pre-wired combination of “relays”
always produces the same result )or “decision”( when certain
inputs are at a pre-determined condition, much like our fog
lamp circuit that always lights the fog lamps when all the
correct switches are in the correct position.
Since the CPU is a generic (or common) component,
another pre-wired “circuit” called Read Only Memory (ROM) is
permanently connected to it. This ROM chip (integrated
circuit( is the “personality” of the processor.

During processor design, the ROM is programmed or “wired”
to produce the results desired. Now, specific combinations of
inputs will produce desired outputs.
Although there are many individual “circuits” in a ROM, each
one is a part of a particular combination that causes the CPU
to perform a unique task. A ROM is the “operating
instructions” for the CPU. Other, more customized, ROM chips
are also used.
These contain very specific operating “instructions” or pre-
wired circuits, and are called Programmable Read-Only Memory
(PROM), Erasable PROM (EPROM), and Electronically Erasable
PROM (EEPROM).
Ford’s Electronic Engine Control\ version five (EEC-V) uses
an
EEPROM to hold instructions that are specific to certain engine
sizes or applications. An EEPROM can be reprogrammed
electronically )“rewired”( in the field by diagnostic equipment.
Another component important to the overall operation of
a processor is the Random Access Memory (RAM) chip.
This chip is the electronic “scratch pad” of the processor.
Here information, in the form of digital DC voltage, is
stored as long as the processor is powered.
This component has two primary functions:
One is to hold temporary instructions, partial computations,
and processor results until the CPU needs them. The
second function is to hold input information that the CPU
stored, waiting for use later in some CPU “calculation.”
This ensures that the input information is always available
when the CPU is making a calculation.
Another version of RAM is Keep Alive Memory (KAM), a
special version of RAM that is connected directly to the battery
(rather than powered by the ignition switch) so that certain conditions
or Diagnostic Trouble Codes )DTCs( can be “remembered” after the
ignition switch has turned OFF.
By now we know that the CPU uses RAM to store input information
and the results of its calculations. The CPU stores input values into
certain RAM locations, retrieves the information and makes
calculations )with combinations of its “relay” circuits(. It then stores
the results in RAM on the output side of the processor. The CPU must
now adjust some output device to accomplish its assigned task.
KEEP ALIVE MEMORY (KAM) - A special type of RAM that stores

information even when the ignition is turned off.
DIAGNOSTIC TROUBLE CODES (DTCs) - Digital electrical signals
output by an electronic module when in a self-testing mode, typically
retrieved by a scan tool device and used to identify input, processing
or output malfunctions,

Digital To Analog Converters
A common device found in the output signal processing area of

the module is the Digital to Analog Converter (DAC).
A Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) is used to decode computer
language (combinations of voltage/no voltage in the output RAM)
into voltage commands usable outside of the processor.

Since the current level of these internal circuits is extremely
low, transistor amplifiers or switches are used to boost the
available power to the output devices. These transistors, or
output drivers, are the final stage in the signal processing
before the output signal leaves the module.
Once the signal is converted, outputs can use these signals
to react accordingly.
The process is now complete. Pre-written instructions
(contained in ROM, PROM, EPROM, or EEPROM) have
caused
the CPU to store and use input signals to make calculations.
The results have been put in memory, then decoded, and
finally, amplified to drive some type of output device. Now, its
mission has been accomplished. Although not particularly
intelligent, processors can control outputs with a speed far
surpassing human ability.
DAC - Digital to Analog Converter - A device inside an electronic module that
converts digital electrical signals toDr.analog electrical
Suleiman Abu-Ein signals. 96
SYSTEM OUTPUTS
OUTPUTS
We previously discussed the concept of how an electronic

module functions by processing input data and controlling
outputs based on its programming. In previous courses in the
you were introduced to Solenoids, Relays and Motors.
Specifically, you learned how these devices function, operate
and are tested.
In electronic systems these devices are controlled by the

OUTPUT controls of the electronic module. Therefore these
components are commonly referred to as OUTPUTS. In this
section you will learn how the module controls these outputs.

Controlling Outputs
As you learned before, many outputs are
controlled indirectly by the module. The module
generates output signals depending on the
requirements of the output device itself.
Like input signal processing, output signal
processing is made up of several different devices.
Either alone or combined with other modules or
devices, they produce the appropriate output
signal.

TRANSISTOR SWITCHING
- Large - Compact
- Requires more power - Lower power to operate
- Limited by mechanical speed - Faster
- High current / Low frequency applications - More Reliable
- Subject to wear over time - High frequency / Low current
applications
Relay vs. Transistor Switching

Another common device found in the output signal
processing area of the module is the Switching Transistor.
A switching transistor is a solid state version of a relay,
and operates as an electronic switch.
Switching transistors offer several advantages over
relays:
1. They are smaller and more compact than switches or
relays.
2. They require less power (voltage and amperage) to

operate.
3. They are also much more reliable and faster than

relays because they contain no moving parts.

MODULE OUTPUT USING TRANSISTOR
Transistors inside the

microcomputer control the
ON and OFF state of the
output drivers. Output
drivers are transistors used
as electronic switches.
They
are usually attached to the
ground-side of actuator or
solenoid circuits.
Opening or closing the
ground-side of output
components gives the
module control of output
devices.
Processor/Module Testing
Location of Data Link Connector (DLC) for Connecting Scan Tool

Most electronic modules have self-testing capabilities.
In some cases, module tests are accessed through the use of a
scan tool via a data link connection (DLC). This is the case with
the PCM and ABS system modules.
The J 1961 DLC connector is typically located near the steering

column. Some older vehicles may have a connector mounted
under the dash assembly on the passenger side of the vehicle
or located somewhere in the engine compartment.
SELF-TEST - Refers to the diagnostic abilities of modules to test

themselves when accessed through a diagnostic data link.
SCAN TOOL - Device used to interact with the module of an
electronic system. Capable of retrieving diagnostic trouble
codes
and monitoring the electrical signals of inputs and outputs.

There are two major types of Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs)
output by modules (depending on system applications):
1. Continuous 2. On-Demand
Continuous (Memory)
Continuous self-tests are automatically performed while the

vehicle is operating. If a monitored component or system operates
outside acceptable parameters, a continuous DTC is stored in the
module’s memory. This type of code reports a condition that existed
At some point during vehicle operation.
These conditions may still be present at the time the codes are
retrieved or may indicate intermittent concerns not currently present.
Continuous DTC’s are stored in Keep-Alive Memory (KAM). They can
be erased using a scan tool. In many instances, disconnecting the
battery will erase the vehicle’s continuous DTC’s .

On-Demand
A technician can initiate On-Demand self-tests with a scan

tool. On-Demand DTCs indicate hard-faults or faults that exist
at the time the test is performed.
Many of these tests cannot be performed as continuous test.
This is because they require manipulation of components such
as the throttle, which can be unsafe during vehicle operation.
CONTINUOUS - Refers to Diagnostic Trouble Codes that are stored in

a module’s memory and are retrieved during a self-test.
ON-DEMAND - Refers to Diagnostic Trouble Codes that exist at the
time a module self-test is performed.
KEEP-ALIVE MEMORY - Electronic memory that will retain stored
data
after the ignition key is turned Off.

Pulse Width Modulation
Most solenoids are controlled by a square wave voltage whose ON time

can be increased or decreased in comparison to its OFF time. This form of
voltage control is commonly referred to as Pulse Width Modulation. Pulse
Width signals can vary both “ON” time and total Cycle time.
In applications, such as the sequential fuel injectors, not only does the
on time of the voltage vary, but so does the frequency of the signal. This is
necessary because as engine RPM increase so does the frequency of the
intake stroke.

Duty Cycle is a term used to refer
to the percentage of time a
voltage signal is “ON” vs. the total
cycle time. In this type of square
wave voltage, the signal frequency
can change, but as long as the
percentage of time the output is
“ON” remains constant per cycle,
the Duty Cycle will not change.
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION - A

function of an electronic module
where the ON time and OFF time
of
an output is controlled.
DUTY CYCLE - The ratio of “ON
time” versus “total cycle time” of a
square wave voltage pulse.
Output Devices
You previously learned
Solenoids, Relays and
Motors as output devices
controlled by module
outputs in electronic
systems. Following are
several applications of
these devices in electronic FUEL INJECTORS
systems.

Solenoid Devices
A few examples of solenoid devices found in

electronic systems include:
- Air Suspension Spring and Vent Solenoids;
- Air Suspension System;
- Transmission Shift Control Solenoids - Electronic
Engine Control System;
- Idle Air Control Solenoid – Electronic Engine
Control System;
- Fuel Injectors - Electronic Engine Control System;
Relay Devices
Some relay devices include:
- Electronic Engine Control Power Relays;
- Fuel Pump Relays;
- Power Window Relays;
- Fog Lamp Relays;
- Moonroof Relays;
- Air Suspension Compressor Relays;
- Starter Relays.
Motor Devices
Systems where motors are used
include:
1. Power Window Systems - Power
Window Motors;
2. Power Seat Systems - Power
Seat Motors;
3. Keyless and Illuminated Entry
Systems - Power Door Lock
Motors;
4. Anti-Lock Braking Systems –
Hydraulic Pump Motor
5. Interval Wiper Systems -Wiper
Motors;
6. EATC Systems - Blend Door
Motors.

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AL-BALQA’ APPLIED UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

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ELECTRONICS - The control of systems or devices by the use of electrical

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MODULE - The term commonly used

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Climate Control System

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 PCM - Powertrain Control Module. The computer/module used to

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In this example, the steering module uses this vehicle

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 OUTPUT - Commands issued by the module of an electronic system,

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Another example of a direct module output is the signal sent by

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Another example of an indirect module output is the signal sent by

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Digital DC Signal Voltage “Wave”

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Notice how a “diode” is wired into the

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FORWARD BIASED - Voltage applied to a transistor in such a

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To make these circuits useful, modules often include an additional

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Brake ON/OFF Switch Operation

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Switches can be used on the ground-

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PHOTOTRANSISTOR - An electronic device that

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Some Optical Sensors

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OPTICAL SENSORS - Input sensors/devices that operate using light.

Sample Hall Effect Sensor Device

Hall Effect sensors are connected like the switch in a ground-side

HALL EFFECT - A process where current is passed through a

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The signal from the Hall Effect sensor is LOW

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