Topic 1 Basic Molecules of Cells

Chapter 3 The Molecules of Cells

PowerPoint Lectures for

Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition
Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko

Learning outcomes:

1. Explain how a cell can make a variety of large

molecules from a small set of molecules.
2. Explain the structures and functions of
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
3. Explain the structures and functions of lipids,
phospholipids, and steroids.
4. Explain the chemical structure of proteins and
their importance to cells.
5. Distinguish the structures of DNA and RNA.

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Learning outcomes:

6. Describe how DNA replicates.

7. Describe how a protein is produced.

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Rearrange these in
the correct order:
 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS

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3.1 Life’s molecular diversity is based on the
properties of carbon

 Carbon-based molecules are called organic

compounds.
 Methane (CH4) is one of the simplest organic
compounds.
– Four covalent bonds link four hydrogen atoms
to the carbon atom.
– Each of the four lines in the formula for
methane represents a pair of shared electrons.

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 Three representatives of methane (CH4)

Structural Ball-and-stick Space-filling

formula model model

The four single bonds of carbon point to the corners of a tetrahedron.

Different bond angles and shapes occur when carbon atoms

form double bonds. Hence, a molecule’s shape determines its
function
3.1 Life’s molecular diversity is based on
the properties of carbon
 Compound composed of only carbon and hydrogen are called
hydrocarbons.
 Carbon, with attached hydrogens (aka carbon skeleton), can
bond together in chains of
(i) Various lengths
(ii) Branched or unbranched
(iii) Presence of double bonds (number & location)
(iv) Ring structure.
 By sharing electrons, carbon can
– bond to four other atoms and
– branch in up to four directions.
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3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help
determine the properties of organic
compounds
 An organic compound has unique properties that
depend upon the
– size and shape of the molecule and
– groups of atoms (functional groups) attached to it.

 A functional group affects a biological molecule’s

function by participating in chemical reactions in a
characteristic way.
 Compounds containing functional groups are
____________ (water-loving)(except methyl group)
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3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help
determine the properties of organic
compounds
– _______________—consists of a hydrogen bonded to an
oxygen,
– _______________—a carbon linked by a double bond to an
oxygen atom,
– _______________—consists of a carbon double-bonded to
both an oxygen and a hydroxyl group,
– _______________—composed of a nitrogen bonded to two
hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton, and
– _______________—consists of a phosphorus atom bonded
to four oxygen atoms.

Polar as oxygen or nitrogen atoms exert a strong pull on shared electrons. Hence, making
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. these groups hydrophilic
3.2 Characteristic chemical groups help
determine the properties of organic
compounds
 Eg. of similar compounds that differ only in
functional groups is sex hormones.
– Male and female sex hormones differ only in functional
groups.
– The differences cause varied molecular actions.
– The result is distinguishable features of males and
females.

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Differences in the chemical groups of sex hormones

Testosterone Estradiol
3.3 Cells make a huge number of large
molecules from a small set of small
molecules
 4 classes of molecules important to organisms:
– carbohydrates
– proteins
– lipids
– nucleic acids

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3.3 Cells make a huge number of large
molecules from a small set of small
molecules

 4 classes of biological molecules contain very large

molecules.
– called macromolecules because of their large size.
– Three of them are called polymers because they are
made from identical building blocks strung together.
– building blocks of polymers = monomers.

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3.3 Cells make a huge number of large
molecules from a small set of small
molecules
 Monomers are linked together to form polymers through
dehydration reactions
 Polymers are broken apart by hydrolysis
 These biological reactions are mediated by enzymes in order
to speed up the chemical reactions.

Dehydration
Hydrolysis
Short polymer Monomer Longer polymer

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Short polymer Unlinked
monomer
Short polymer Unlinked
monomer

Dehydration reaction
forms a new bond

Longer polymer

Dehydration reaction building a polymer chain

 Hydrolysis
breaks a bond

Hydrolysis breaking down a polymer

3.3 Cells make a huge number of large
molecules from a small set of small
molecules
 A cell makes a large number of polymers from a
small group of monomers. For example,
– proteins are made from only 20 different amino acids
and
– DNA is built from 4 kinds of nucleotides.

 The monomers used to make polymers are

universal.
 The key to great diversify of polymers is the
variation sequences of monomers arrangement
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A A B

dehydration hydrolysis
synthesis
Which picture
represents…
Is water
removed or
added?
Are polymers or
monomers
formed?
 CARBOHYDRATES

Bees with honey, a mixture of two monosaccharides

(glucose & fructose)
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3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest
carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates range from small sugar molecules
(monomers) to large polysaccharides.
 Sugar monomers are monosaccharides, such as
those found in honey. Eg. Glucose and fructose
 Monosaccharides can be hooked together by
dehydration reactions to form polysaccharide.

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3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest
carbohydrates
 Carbon skeletons of monosaccharides vary in
length.
– Glucose and fructose = 6 carbons long.
– Others have three to seven carbon atoms.

 Monosaccharides are
– the main fuels for cellular work
– used as raw materials to manufacture other organic
molecules.

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Isomers – same molecular formula but different structural
arrangements. Hence, different properties are showed.
Physical properties: Which tastes sweeter?

Glucose Fructose
(an aldose/ (a ketose/
aldehyde sugar) ketone sugar)
3.6 CONNECTION: What is high-fructose
corn syrup, and is it to blame for obesity?

 Sodas or fruit drinks probably contain high-fructose corn

syrup (HFCS).
 High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is
– used to sweeten beverages
– may be associated with weight gain.

 Good health is promoted by

– a diverse diet of proteins, fats,
vitamins, minerals, and complex
carbohydrates
– exercise.
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3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest
carbohydrates
 Many monosaccharides form rings.
6

4 1

3 2

Structural Abbreviated Simplified

formula structure structure

Three representations of ring form of glucose.

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3.5 Two monosaccharides are linked to
form a disaccharide
 Two monosaccharides (monomers) can bond to
form a _______________in a dehydration reaction.
 The disaccharide sucrose is formed by combining
a glucose monomer and a fructose monomer.
 The disaccharide maltose is formed from two
glucose monomers.
 The disaccharide lactose is formed from galactose
and glucose.

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Glucose Glucose
Glucose Glucose

Maltose
Disaccharide formation by a dehydration reaction
3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar
units
 Polysaccharides are
– macromolecules
– polymers composed of thousands of monosaccharides.

 Polysaccharides may function as

– storage molecules or
– structural compounds.

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3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar
units
 Starch is
– composed of glucose monomers
– used by plants for energy storage.
 Glycogen is
– composed of glucose monomers
– used by animals for energy storage.
 Cellulose
– polymer of glucose
– forms plant cell walls.
 Chitin is
– used by insects and crustaceans to build an exoskeleton.
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 • Coil into helical shape
• May be unbranched/
branched
Starch granules
in potato tuber cells Starch

Glucose
monomer
Glycogen granules
in muscle
tissue Glycogen

Cellulose microfibrils Cellulose

in a plant cell wall

Hydrogen bonds

Cellulose
molecules

Polysaccharides
 Starch granules
in potato tuber cells Starch
• Highly branched
• Stored as granules in liver and
muscle cells Glucose
monomer
Glycogen granules
in muscle
tissue Glycogen

Cellulose microfibrils Cellulose

in a plant cell wall

Hydrogen bonds

Cellulose
molecules

Polysaccharides
 Starch granules
in potato tuber cells Starch

• A polymer of glucose
• Monomers are linked Glucose
in a different
orientation monomer
Glycogen granules
in•muscle
Arranged parallel and cellulose
tissue Glycogen
molecules are joined by hydrogen
bonds, forming cable-like
microfibrils
Cellulose microfibrils Cellulose
in a plant cell wall

Hydrogen bonds

Cellulose
molecules

Polysaccharides
3.7 Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units

 Polysaccharides are hydrophilic (water-loving).

 Eg. Bath towels are
– often made of cotton, which is mostly cellulose
– water absorbent.

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 What basic shape do these polymers share?
Fig. 5-6
• *What basic shape do these polymers share?
Chloroplast Starch Mitochondria Glycogen granules

0.5 µm

1 µm

Amylose Glycogen

Amylopectin

(a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide (b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

 LIPIDS

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3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-
storage molecules
 Lipids
– are water insoluble ( ____________, or water-fearing)
compounds
– are important in long-term energy storage
– contain twice as much energy as a polysaccharide
– consist mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms linked by
nonpolar covalent bonds.

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3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-
storage molecules
 3 types of lipids:
– fats
– phospholipids
– steroids
 Fat is a large lipid made from one glycerol and
three fatty acids.
– A fatty acid link to glycerol by dehydration reaction.
– Fats often called triglycerides because of their structure.

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 Animation: Fats
Right click on animation / Click play

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 Glycerol Glycerol

Fatty acid Fatty acids

A dehydration reaction linking a fatty acid A fat molecule (trigylceride) consisting of 3

to glycerol. fatty acids linked to glycerol
 What is the technical name for fat?

 What are the components of fats?

 Why is fat a good source of energy?

 What is the type of reaction?

Fatty acid
(palmitic acid)

Glycerol
3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-
storage molecules
 Some fatty acids contain double bonds, forming
unsaturated fats that
– have one fewer hydrogen atom on each carbon of the
double bond
– cause kinks or bends in the carbon chain
– prevent them from packing together tightly and
solidifying at room temperature
– Eg. corn and olive oils.

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3.8 Fats are lipids that are mostly energy-
storage molecules
 Fats with the maximum number of hydrogens =
saturated fats.
 Eg. animal fats
 Hydrogenated vegetable oils are unsaturated fats
that have been converted to saturated fats by
adding hydrogen.
 This hydrogenation creates trans fats associated
with health risks.

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 Is this fat saturated or unsaturated?

Structural formula of a
fat molecule

Stearic acid, a fatty acid

Is this fat
saturated or
unsaturated?

Structural formula of a fat molecule

Oleic acid, a fatty acid

cis double
bond causes
bending.
3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important
lipids with a variety of functions

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3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important
lipids with a variety of functions
 Phospholipids are
– structurally similar to fats
– major component of all cells.

 Phospholipids are structurally similar to fats.

– Fats contain three fatty acids attached to glycerol.
– Phospholipids contain two fatty acids attached to
glycerol.

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 – Two fatty acids and a
phosphate group are
attached to glycerol
Choline
– The two fatty acid tails
Hydrophilic head

Phosphate are hydrophobic, but the

phosphate group and its
Glycerol
attachments form a
hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tails

Fatty acids

Hydrophilic
head

Hydrophobic
tails

(a) Structural formula (b) Space-filling model (c) Phospholipid symbol

3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important
lipids with a variety of functions
 Phospholipids cluster into a bilayer
of phospholipids to form cell
membrane Water
Hydrophilic head
 The hydrophilic heads are in
Hydrophobic tail
contact with water of the
environment and internal part of
the cell.
 The hydrophobic tails band in the Symbol for
phospholipid
center of the bilayer.
Water

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3.9 Phospholipids and steroids are important
lipids with a variety of functions
 Steroids are lipids in which the carbon skeleton
contains four fused rings.
 Cholesterol is a
– common component in animal cell membranes
– starting material for making steroids, including sex
hormones.

Cholesterol, a steroid.
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Testosterone Estradiol

Differences in the chemical groups of sex hormones

3.10 CONNECTION: Anabolic steroids pose
health risks
 Anabolic steroids
– are synthetic variants of testosterone
– can cause a buildup of muscle and
bone mass
– are often prescribed to treat general
anemia and some diseases that
destroy body muscle
– abused by some athletes with
serious consequences, including
violent mood swings, depression,
liver damage, cancer, high
cholesterol, and high blood pressure.

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